Maritime East Africa (1852–1863 CE): British Influence, Economic Expansion, and Madagascar's Political Shifts

From 1852 to 1863 CE, Maritime East Africa—including the Somali coast, Mauritius, and Madagascar—experiences expanding British influence, significant economic developments tied to global markets, and notable political shifts within Madagascar’s Merina kingdom.

Somali Coast: Local Rule and British Relations

In 1854–1855, British naval lieutenant Richard Burton explores the northern Somali coast, observing significant local political autonomy despite formal foreign influences. At Saylac, Burton encounters Somali governor Haaji Sharmarke Ali Saleh of the Habar Yoonis clan, who exerts practical authority over the city and its surroundings. However, Saylac itself has significantly declined from its former prominence, now characterized by crumbling infrastructure, ineffective water storage, and recurrent incursions by local tribal groups.

Farther east along the Majeerteen (Bari) coast, two influential Somali kingdoms emerge prominently: the Majeerteen Sultanate under Boqor Osman Mohamoud, and the Sultanate of Hobyo (Obbia) under Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid. Sultan Osman Mohamoud’s leadership sees considerable economic growth from trading in livestock, ostrich feathers, and gum arabic, enhanced by British subsidies intended to protect British shipwreck survivors along the Somali coastline. Although nominally acknowledging British influence, these Somali kingdoms maintain considerable autonomy well into the nineteenth century.

Mauritius: Sugar Dominance under British Rule

In Mauritius, sugar production becomes the island’s dominant economic sector, significantly shaping its colonial economy under British administration. Initially incentivized by Britain’s decision in 1825 to equalize sugar duties across colonies, Mauritius dramatically expands its sugar output. From 1825 to 1826, production nearly doubles, and by 1854, the island surpasses one hundred thousand tons annually. Between 1855 and 1859, Mauritius achieves its peak significance as Britain’s primary sugar-producing colony, contributing 9.4 percent of the global sugar supply.

Despite rising overall production through subsequent decades, Mauritius’s global sugar dominance gradually diminishes due to declining world sugar prices and intensified competition from other sugar-producing nations. Nevertheless, the concentration on sugar transforms the island’s economy, diminishing food-crop cultivation and reinforcing large, plantation-based landholdings.

Madagascar: Political and Diplomatic Fluctuations under Merina Rule

Madagascar’s political environment undergoes significant swings during this era. Under King Radama II (r. 1861–1863), Madagascar adopts a notably pro-European stance, particularly toward France. Radama II signs a treaty of perpetual friendship with France, signifying openness to Western influence and modernization. However, his policies quickly provoke opposition from conservative nobles alarmed by the increasing French presence.

In 1863, Radama II is assassinated by nobles opposed to his pro-French diplomacy, abruptly ending his short reign. His widow, Queen Rasoherina (r. 1863–1868), succeeds him, swiftly reversing his policies. She annuls the French treaty and dissolves agreements made by Radama II, including revoking the charter of the influential French entrepreneur Jean Laborde, whose ventures had significantly shaped Madagascar’s industrial and agricultural landscape.

Malawi and Mozambique:

The mid-nineteenth century witnesses increased Portuguese administrative presence in central and northern Mozambique, though practical control remains patchy beyond coastal enclaves. Mozambique’s Zambezi Valley becomes a crucial artery for trade, linking inland southern Malawi settlements, including expanding missionary bases, to coastal markets. Blantyre grows steadily, influenced by increasing missionary activity and early plantation economies introduced by European settlers, setting foundations for its future status as Malawi’s commercial and administrative hub.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1852 to 1863 CE in Maritime East Africa is marked by expanding British influence along the Somali coast, economic prosperity driven by sugar cultivation in Mauritius, and dramatic political and diplomatic shifts within Madagascar’s Merina kingdom. These developments profoundly shape regional dynamics, setting a foundation for intensified European colonial interactions and economic transformations in subsequent decades.

Farther east on the Majeerteen (Bari) coast, by the middle of the nineteenth century two tiny kingdoms emerge that will play a significant political role on the Somali Peninsula prior to colonization.

These are the Majeerteen Sultanate of Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud, and that of his kinsman Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid of Hobyo (Obbia).

The Majeerteen Sultanate had originated in the mid-eighteenth century, but only comes into its own in the nineteenth century with the reign of the resourceful Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud.

Ismaan Mahamuud's kingdom benefits from British subsidies (for protecting the British naval crews that are shipwrecked periodically on the Somali coast) and from a liberal trade policy that facilitates a flourishing commerce in livestock, ostrich feathers, and gum arabic.

While acknowledging a vague vassalage to the British, the sultan keeps his desert kingdom free until well after 1800.

Maritime East Africa (1864–1875 CE): Regional Power Struggles, Portuguese Ambitions, and Madagascar's Modernization Efforts

From 1864 to 1875 CE, Maritime East Africa experiences intensified internal political rivalries, renewed Portuguese colonial ambitions, and significant social reforms and diplomatic balancing in Madagascar under Merina rule.

Somali Sultanates: Civil Strife and Political Fragmentation

The Somali Sultanate under Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud suffers severe internal strife due to a prolonged power struggle with his cousin, the ambitious Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid. This destructive civil war lasts nearly five years, severely weakening the sultanate. Ultimately, Boqor Ismaan prevails, forcing Keenadiid into exile in Arabia. Despite Ismaan's victory, the conflict leaves the sultanate fragmented and vulnerable.

Portuguese Colonial Expansion and Ambitions

Portugal significantly renews its colonial ambitions in East Africa during this period, driven in large part by the establishment of the Lisbon Geographical Society in 1875, founded by Portuguese industrialists, scholars, and colonial and military officials. The society fosters popular interest in Africa, prompting increased government investment in colonial infrastructure and missionary activities.

In pursuit of a contiguous colonial territory across central Africa, Portugal launches an ambitious expedition in the late 1870s designed to connect Angola on the Atlantic coast with Mozambique on the Indian Ocean. Although the Portuguese government supports this venture enthusiastically, its ambitions exceed practical capabilities, ultimately failing to secure effective control over the desired interior territories.

Madagascar: Diplomatic Maneuvering and Social Modernization

In Madagascar, Rainilaiarivony effectively governs after 1868, seeking to balance competing British and French interests to avoid direct foreign intervention. He skillfully employs diplomatic tactics, signing significant commercial treaties with France in 1868 and Britain in 1877, while cautiously modernizing Malagasy society.

Under Rainilaiarivony, Madagascar experiences meaningful social reforms, notably the abolition of polygamy and the slave trade, the establishment of new legal codes, and expanded access to education—especially among the Merina population. In a strategic cultural and diplomatic shift, the Malagasy monarchy converts officially to Protestantism in 1869, aligning closer to British interests and reflecting the increasing influence of Protestant missionaries.

Malawi and Mozambique:

Southern Malawi, notably Blantyre, experiences significant transformations with the arrival of additional Scottish missions under the leadership of figures like Reverend David Clement Scott. These missions actively promote education, Christianity, and Western agriculture. Meanwhile, central and northern Mozambique, particularly the Beira Corridor and surrounding areas, attract heightened Portuguese interest, leading to expanded settlement, plantations, and intensified labor extraction practices, deeply embedding these regions into Portugal’s colonial economic framework.

Legacy of the Era

From 1864 to 1875 CE, Maritime East Africa is shaped by internal power struggles in the Somali sultanates, reinvigorated Portuguese colonial ambitions, and Madagascar’s calculated diplomatic balancing combined with notable social reform efforts. These dynamics set the stage for further European intervention and the complex interplay of local and colonial powers in subsequent decades.

Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud's sultanate is nearly destroyed in the middle of the nineteenth century by a power struggle between him and his young, ambitious cousin, Keenadiid.

Nearly five years of destructive civil war pass before Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud manages to stave off the challenge of the young upstart, who is finally driven into exile in Arabia.

Maritime East Africa (1876–1887 CE): European Exploration, Somali Power Shifts, and Colonial Expansion

From 1876 to 1887 CE, Maritime East Africa experiences intensified European exploration and colonization efforts, significant shifts in local political power in Somalia, and deepening European rivalry over strategic island territories and coastal regions.

Portuguese Expeditions into the African Interior

In 1877, Portugal launches a significant scientific expedition from Luanda, led by naval officers Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens, accompanied by army major Alexandre Serpa Pinto. The group travels into Angola's interior to the Bié plateau, where they split:

• Serpa Pinto explores the headwaters of Angola's Cuanza River and follows the Zambezi River to Victoria Falls, eventually crossing the Transvaal and reaching Natal in 1879.

• Later, in 1884–1885, Capelo and Ivens traverse previously unexplored territories from the coast of Angola (Mocamades) to Quelimane on Mozambique's east coast.

• Simultaneously, Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso conduct expeditions around Lake Nyassa, significantly enhancing Portuguese geographical knowledge of Mozambique’s interior.

Establishment of German East Africa

In the early 1880s, German adventurer Carl Peters actively seeks colonial acquisitions. After securing treaties with native chiefs opposite Zanzibar, the Society for German Colonization is granted an imperial charter by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck on February 27, 1885. Upon the Sultan of Zanzibar's protest, Bismarck swiftly dispatches a German naval squadron that compels the Sultan's acquiescence, establishing German control over Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam, and Kilwa.

Return and Rise of Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid in Somalia

In the 1870s, exiled Somali leader Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid returns from Arabia with a small contingent of Hadhrami fighters and loyal followers. Utilizing force and strategic alliances, he establishes the new Somali kingdom of Hobyo, subduing local Hawiye clans. Keenadiid’s emergence marks a significant shift in Somali power dynamics, though his rule, along with the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, faces increasing pressure from advancing European colonial interests.

European Competition for Somali Territories

The latter part of this era sees intensified European colonial ambitions in Somalia, driven by strategic interests:

• Britain actively expands its influence from 1884, motivated by the need to secure the northern Somali coast as a supply base (livestock and provisions) for its crucial naval port at Aden, vital for the defense of British India. Major A. Hunter negotiates protection treaties with Somali clans, and British vice-consuls are installed in Berbera, Bullaxaar, and Saylac.

• Italy, seeking colonial expansion, increasingly pushes into southern Somalia, setting the stage for future colonial consolidation.

French Influence in the Comoros

France, already established in Comoros, gradually extends its influence across the archipelago. Although progress is slow, fueled by persistent internal conflicts among local sultans and rivalry with British and German ambitions, France finally secures protectorate agreements with the rulers of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali in 1886. These agreements set the foundation for the eventual formal annexation and administration of Comoros as part of the French colony of Madagascar in the early twentieth century.

Malawi and Mozambique

Portuguese expeditions like those of explorers Serpa Pinto, Capelo, and Ivens underscore increased colonial ambitions across central and northern Mozambique, emphasizing the economic importance of trade routes through Quelimane and the Zambezi Valley. Southern Malawi (Nyasaland) becomes formally a British protectorate in 1889, with Blantyre established as an administrative and commercial capital, firmly integrating Malawi into Britain’s broader colonial framework in East Africa.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1876 and 1887 CE, Maritime East Africa witnesses transformative European exploration, aggressive colonial expansion, strategic shifts in Somali political power, and deepening European rivalries. These complex interactions set the stage for profound regional changes in the late nineteenth century, significantly impacting local autonomy, trade networks, and sociopolitical structures.

Political developments transform the Somali Peninsula in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

During this period, the Somalis become the subjects of state systems under the flags of Britain, France, Italy, Egypt, and Ethiopia.

The new rulers have various motives for colonization.

Britain seeks to gain control of the northern Somali coast as a source of mutton and other livestock products for its naval port of Aden in present-day Yemen.

As a result of the growing importance of the Red Sea to British operations in the East, Aden is regarded as indispensable to the defense of British India.

British occupation of the northern Somali coast begins in earnest in February 1884, when Major A. Hunter arrives at Berbera to negotiate treaties of friendship and protection with numerous Somali clans.

Hunter arranges to have British vice consuls installed in Berbera, Bullaxaar, and Saylac.

Keenadiid returns to Somalia from Arabia a decade later, in the 1870s, with a score of Hadhrami musketeers and a band of devoted lieutenants.

With their help, he carves out the small kingdom of Hobyo after conquering the local Hawiye clans.

Both kingdoms, however, will be gradually absorbed by the extension into southern Somalia of Italian colonial rule in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

The French, having been evicted from Egypt by the British, wish to establish a coaling station on the Red Sea coast to strengthen naval links with their Indochina colonies.

The French are also eager to bisect Britain's vaunted Cairo to Cape Town zone of influence with an east to west expansion across Africa.

France extends its foothold on the Afar coast partly to counter the high duties that the British authorities impose on French goods in Obock.

A French protectorate is proclaimed under the governorship of Leonce Lagarde, who plays a prominent role in extending French influence into the Horn of Africa.

Italy, recently unified, is inexperienced at imperial power plays.

It was therefore content to stake out a territory whenever it can do so without confronting another colonial power.

In southern Somalia, better known as the Banaadir coast, Italy is the main colonizer, but the extension of Italian influence is painstakingly slow owing to parliamentary lack of enthusiasm for overseas territory.

Italy acquires its first possession in southern Somalia in 1888 when the Sultan of Hobyo, Keenadiid, agrees to Italian "protection."

In the same year, Vincenzo Filonardi, Italy's architect of imperialism in southern Somalia, demands a similar arrangement from the Majeerteen Sultanate of Ismaan Mahamuud.

In 1889 both sultans, suspicious of each other, consent  to place their lands under Italian protection.

Italy now notifies the signatory powers of the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884-85 of its southeastern Somali protectorate.

Later, Italy seizesthe Banaadir coast proper, which has long been under the tenuous authority of the Zanzibaris, to form the colony of Italian Somaliland.

Chisimayu Region, which passes to the British as a result of their protectorate over the Zanzibaris, will be ceded to Italy in 1925 to complete Italian tenure over southern Somalia.

The three European powers in Somaliland often lack funds, but they nevertheless manage to establish the rudimentary organs of colonial administration.

Moreover, because they control the port outlets, they can levy taxes on livestock to obtain the necessary funds to administer their respective Somali territories.

In contrast, Ethiopia is largely a feudal state with a subsistence economy that requires its army of occupation to live off the land.

Thus, Ethiopian armies repeatedly despoil the Ogaden in the last two decades of the nineteenth century.