Near East (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Delta Kingdoms, Aegean City-Coasts, Arabian Caravan Seeds

Geographic and Environmental Context

• Anchors: the Nile Valley and Delta; Sinai–Negev–Arabah; the southern Levant (with Tyre as the sole Levantine node in this subregion); Hejaz–Asir–Tihāma on the Red Sea; Yemen’s western uplands/coast; southwestern Cyprus; western Anatolian littoral (Smyrna–Ephesus–Miletus–Halicarnassus–Xanthos; Troad).

Climate & Environment

• Nile floods oscillated; Aegean coastal plains fertile; Arabian west slope aridity increased, highland terraces scaled slowly.

Societies & Settlement

• Lower/Upper Egypt (full Pharaonic cores just south but contiguous influence); Aegean Anatolia (Minoan/Mycenaean interactions; later Aeolian/Ionian/Dorian successors).

• Levantine Tyre (within this subregion) arose as Phoenician node; Arabian west oases supported caravan precursors; Yemen west highlands nurtured terrace farming and incense beginnings.

Technology

• Bronze widespread; early iron in Anatolia/Levant; sail-powered shipping matured; terracing and cisterns in Hejaz–Yemen highlands.

Corridors

• Nile–Delta–Aegean maritime bridge; Tyre connected to Cyprus/Anatolia; Red Sea coastal cabotage began; Incense path seeds in Yemen–Hejaz.

Symbolism

• Egyptian temple cosmology radiated north; Aegean cults at capes; Tyrian Melqart/Asherah; Arabian highland local cults.

Adaptation

• Floodplain–coastal–terrace redundancy stabilized economies; incense gardens hedged aridity.

The Near East (1197–910 BCE): Collapse, Realignment, and New Beginnings

Decline of Egyptian Influence

By the eleventh century BCE, the authority of Egypt's New Kingdom dynasties significantly diminishes, resulting in the fragmentation of Egypt itself and the loss of Egyptian control over Kush. Little information is available about Kush's subsequent three centuries, marking a gap in historical records.

During this period, Egypt enters the Third Intermediate Period, characterized by a fractured kingship. The pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty rule from Tanis (San al Hajar al Qibliyah), while an autonomous theocracy emerges in Thebes. Eventually, Libyan-descended rulers dominate the Twenty-second and Twenty-third dynasties, reflecting Egypt's shifting political landscape.

Rise of the Israelites and Philistines

Between 1220 and 1190 BCE, the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes concludes, with tribes settling lands both west and east of the Jordan River. Around this period, the Philistines, originating from Mycenaean Greece as part of the Sea Peoples, invade coastal Canaan, establishing dominance particularly in Gaza—from which "Palestine" eventually derives its name.

Philistine settlements such as Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath reveal clear Mycenaean influences, notably in their distinctive bichrome pottery. Architectural and cultic remnants at Ekron further highlight their Aegean origins and cultural traditions.

Within a century and a half, the Philistines leverage superior iron weaponry and military organization to control southern coastal Palestine and parts of the Judaean hill country. This prompts the Israelites to seek a centralized monarchy under Saul ben Kish, the first king of Israel, around the mid-eleventh century BCE.

Cypriot Cultural Synthesis

Cyprus experiences significant cultural changes, transitioning from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age, influenced by mainland settlers and the widespread introduction of iron technology. Foundation myths documented by classical authors attribute the establishment of numerous Cypriot towns, including Salamis and Paphos, to Greek heroes following the Trojan War. Greek settlements continue to grow, with significant archaeological evidence pointing toward their increasing dominance.

Greek Expansion in Western Anatolia

The west coast of Anatolia sees a major Greek migration during this "Dark Age," resulting in settlements such as Aeolis and the foundation of notable cities including Ephesus and Priene. These settlements mark the transition from sporadic Mycenaean colonization to more extensive and permanent Greek settlement, significantly influencing regional culture and politics.

South Arabian Prosperity

Around 1000 BCE, generous rainfall in southern Arabia fosters agricultural prosperity, complemented by the lucrative trade of frankincense and myrrh. This economic wealth supports the development of city-states and small kingdoms, notably Saba (Sheba). This prosperity later leads Romans to call the region Arabia Felix ("happy Arabia").

Nubian Independence and Cultural Flourishing

Following Egypt’s decline around 1070 BCE, Nubia (Kush) reemerges as an independent kingdom centered at Napata. Nubian society thrives, adopting elements of Egyptian culture including gods such as Ammon and Isis. Kushite burial practices become distinctive, featuring burial mounds and pyramids, marking the emergence of a culturally distinct Nubian civilization.

Israelite Monarchy and Regional Realignment

The political landscape of Canaan shifts significantly after Solomon's reign. The biblical narrative describes a split in the United Monarchy into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, initiating a period marked by internal conflict, external threats, and shifting alliances. Historical evidence independent of biblical accounts remains scarce, and ongoing archaeological research continues to explore these complex developments.

Alphabetic Writing and Linguistic Evolution

During this period, the Proto-Sinaitic script evolves into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, laying foundations for future writing systems, including Phoenician. Around the tenth century BCE, archaic Biblical Hebrew emerges, as evidenced by inscriptions like the Gezer calendar, marking the beginning of Hebrew's written tradition.

Rise of Phoenician Trade and Diplomacy

Independent Phoenician cities, notably Tyre, develop robust trade networks across the Mediterranean. Tyre surpasses Sidon as the dominant Phoenician city, fostering diplomatic and commercial ties with kingdoms such as Israel. This period sees collaborative ventures, exemplified by the partnership between King Solomon of Israel and King Hiram of Tyre, who jointly develop trade routes and undertake significant building projects, including Jerusalem's First Temple.

Conclusion

Between 1197 and 910 BCE, the Near East experiences profound transformations: the fragmentation of Egyptian power, the rise of independent kingdoms, cultural synthesis in Cyprus and Anatolia, the flourishing of Nubian civilization, and significant technological and linguistic advancements. These developments profoundly shape the region’s history, setting the stage for subsequent geopolitical and cultural dynamics.

The gradual loss of a central power, with Egypt in decline, gives rise to independent kingdoms in southern Canaan.

The cities of the Philistines—including Ashkelon, …

…Ashdod, …

…Ekron, and …

…Gath—have regained their independence (if they had ever actually lost it) and often engage in border battles with these kingdoms.

The ten northern tribes of Hebrews—Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun—refuse allegiance to Solomon's son and successor Rehoboam, effectively dissolving the United Monarchy; this is according to the Hebrew Bible.

Following the split of the Hebrew tribes into northern and southern kingdoms known as Israel and Judah, respectively, the monarchial situation will be one of constant turmoil and confusion, except for the periods of a few dynasties.

The historical background of Solomon, independent of religious accounts, is scarce.

The period of his rule is recognized as a "Dark Age": a period in which centralized Empires of the Late Bronze Age have collapsed, and the new Iron Age monarchies have yet to grow.

Archaeological excavations at Hazor, …

…Megiddo, and …

…Gezer have uncovered structures that some attribute to the reign of Solomon based on Biblical accounts.

These structures, however, are now generally dated to the Omride period, more than a century past Solomon's reign.

Excavations on such sites are ongoing.

So far, nothing indisputably of Solomon's reign has yet been found.

The archaeological remains that are still considered to actually date from the time of Solomon are notable for the fact that Canaanite material culture appears to have continued unabated; there is a distinct lack of magnificent empire, or cultural development—indeed, comparing pottery from areas traditionally assigned to Israel with that of the Philistines points to the Philistines having been significantly more sophisticated.

The explanation that a number of archaeologists give for these discrepancies is that due to religious prejudice, later writers (i.e., the Biblical authors) suppressed the achievements of the Omrides (whom the Bible describes as being polytheist), and instead pushed them back to a supposed golden age of godly rulers (i.e. monotheist, and Yahweh worshiping).