Northern South Asia (820–1971 CE): Empires, Colonialism, and the Birth of Modern Nations

Medieval Empires and Dynastic Rule

From the early medieval period onward, Northern South Asia experiences significant dynastic changes. Islamic empires begin exerting influence from the 11th century with the Ghaznavids and later the Delhi Sultanate, reshaping cultural and political landscapes through trade, conquest, and cultural exchanges. Simultaneously, Afghanistan becomes a crucial frontier region, witnessing invasions and rule by various Turkic and Persian dynasties, including the Timurids and the early Mughals.

Nepal and Bhutan remain largely isolated, developing distinctive Himalayan cultures and systems of governance. In Nepal, the medieval period is characterized by the rule of various dynasties, such as the Mallas, who foster rich cultural and architectural traditions.

Mughal Ascendancy and Cultural Synthesis

The rise of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century under rulers like Babur, Akbar, and Aurangzeb marks a pinnacle of political and cultural achievement. The Mughals integrate diverse traditions, fostering a unique synthesis of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian cultures. Monumental architecture flourishes, exemplified by the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. Administrative systems established under Akbar provide stability and governance across the empire, extending influence into modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Afghanistan.

British Colonial Expansion

The weakening Mughal Empire in the 18th century facilitates the expansion of the British East India Company, climaxing with the pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757. British dominance consolidates rapidly, leading to direct British rule following the Indian Rebellion of 1857–58. Afghanistan, however, remains fiercely independent, becoming a contested region between British India and Imperial Russia, sparking several Anglo-Afghan wars.

Meanwhile, Nepal under the Shah Dynasty and Bhutan under the leadership of the Wangchuck Dynasty maintain autonomy, though both engage diplomatically and militarily with British India. Bhutan eventually signs treaties with Britain, securing internal sovereignty while ceding some frontier territories.

Rise of Nationalist Movements

Nationalist movements emerge by the late 19th century, notably with the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Parallel to this, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan spearheads educational reforms for Muslims, founding the Muhammadan-Anglo Oriental College in 1875 (later Aligarh Muslim University), laying the foundation for Muslim political activism.

Afghanistan sees modernization and centralization efforts under leaders like Amir Abdur Rahman Khan (1880–1901), who solidifies borders and establishes the Durand Line with British India, a source of enduring tension.

Independence, Partition, and the Emergence of Modern States

Intense nationalist struggles, notably under Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, culminate in independence and the partition of British India in 1947, creating the independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The partition triggers massive migrations and communal violence, significantly reshaping the region.

Afghanistan navigates neutrality during this period, balancing relations between emerging global powers, while Nepal and Bhutan maintain independent monarchies, cautiously opening diplomatic relations with neighboring nations and beyond.

Post-Independence Challenges and Conflicts

The new states face immediate challenges, including economic stabilization, integration of princely states, and border disputes, notably over Kashmir. Pakistan experiences internal turmoil, leading to the separation of East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh in 1971, following a violent liberation struggle. India maintains democratic governance, embarking on industrialization and social reforms.

Afghanistan becomes a focal point of Cold War rivalry, undergoing rapid modernization, yet experiencing deep internal divisions, leading to instability that intensifies in subsequent decades.

Nepal and Bhutan cautiously engage in modernization while striving to preserve traditional identities. Bhutan introduces controlled development policies under the monarchy, and Nepal gradually opens to external influence.

Legacy of the Epoch

The epoch from 820 to 1971 profoundly shapes Northern South Asia, witnessing transitions from medieval empires to colonial subjugation, culminating in complex realities of independent nation-states. Legacies include cultural syncretism, unresolved regional tensions (particularly over Kashmir and the Durand Line), and socio-political structures inherited from colonial rule. These dynamics continue influencing contemporary geopolitics and societal developments across Northern South Asia.

The Decline of Portugal’s Seaborne Empire During the Iberian Union (1580–1640)

Portugal’s overseas empire had already begun to decline before the Iberian Union, but its 60-year incorporation under Spanish rule (1580–1640)—known in Portugal as the "Spanish Captivity"—accelerated the process. Under Spanish rule, Portugal was dragged into Spain’s conflicts with England and the Dutch Republic, resulting in the loss of key territories in Asia, Africa, and Brazil.

---

Impact of the Iberian Union on Portugal’s Empire

1. Wars with England and the Dutch Republic

   • As part of Spain’s empire, Portugal became an enemy of England and the Dutch, two rising naval powers.
   • The Dutch and English targeted Portuguese trade routes, attacking fortified cities and commercial outposts in the Far East, Africa, and the Americas.

2. Dutch and English Conquests in Asia and India

   • The Dutch seized Portuguese-controlled trading posts in the East Indies, undermining Portugal’s monopoly on the spice trade.
   • The Dutch East India Company (VOC) captured:
     • Malacca (1641)—a major Portuguese hub in Southeast Asia.
     • Ceylon (Sri Lanka, 1638–1658)—cutting off Portugal’s access to cinnamon trade.
     • The Moluccas (Spice Islands)—ending Portugal’s dominance in the nutmeg and clove markets.
   • The English gained a foothold in India, gradually taking over Portuguese commercial influence.

3. Attacks on Portuguese Brazil

   • The Dutch West India Company (WIC) attacked Brazil, seeking to dominate the lucrative sugar trade.
   • They:
     • Occupied Pernambuco (1630–1654), the richest sugar-producing region in the Americas.
     • Captured and raided Bahia and Rio de Janeiro.
   • Only resistance from Portuguese settlers and indigenous allies prevented a total Dutch conquest of Brazil.

4. Portuguese Trade Monopolies Weakened

   • The Dutch and English broke Portugal’s commercial monopoly in both the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic.
   • Lisbon lost control over vital trade networks, leading to economic decline.

---

Conclusion: A Severely Weakened Empire by 1640

• By the time Portugal regained independence in 1640, its empire was greatly reduced.
• The Dutch controlled key territories in Asia, the English had established themselves in India, and Portugal’s monopoly on global trade had collapsed.
• The only bright spot was that Portuguese settlers and militias managed to defend Brazil, preventing it from becoming a Dutch colony.

The Iberian Union (1580–1640) was a period of decline for Portugal, accelerating the loss of its global dominance and marking the beginning of its transition to a second-tier colonial power.

João IV: The Restorer of Portuguese Independence (1641–1656)

When João IV of Portugal was proclaimed king in 1641, he faced a kingdom in ruins and a serious threat from Spain, which sought to reincorporate Portugal into the Iberian Union. His reign was focused on military defense, diplomatic maneuvering, and economic recovery, ultimately securing Portugal’s sovereignty after decades of Spanish rule (1580–1640).

---

Immediate Measures to Defend the Kingdom

Upon his proclamation as king, João IV took swift action to strengthen Portugal’s position:

• Created a Council of War to oversee military strategy.
• Appointed military governors in the provinces to ensure effective regional defense.
• Recruited soldiers and rebuilt fortifications to counter Spanish invasions.
• Constructed an arms foundry to supply the military with Portuguese-made weapons.

His primary concern was to prevent Spain from reversing Portugal’s independence, a conflict that would evolve into the Portuguese Restoration War (1640–1668).

---

Securing International Recognition and Alliances

João IV worked tirelessly to gain diplomatic support from European powers that opposed Spain:

• June 1, 1641 – Signed an alliance with Louis XIII of France, strengthening Portugal’s position against Spain.
• Negotiated peace with England and the Dutch Republic, former rivals in colonial conflicts.
  • England – Portugal’s historical ally, agreed to mutual cooperation.
  • Holland – Though they had fought over Brazil and Asian colonies, João IV prioritized peace to focus on defending Portugal from Spain.

These diplomatic efforts isolated Spain and helped Portugal withstand multiple Spanish invasions.

---

Achievements by the Time of His Death (1656)

By the end of João IV’s reign, he had:

1. Consolidated and Restored the Monarchy

   • Secured recognition from European powers.
   • Strengthened Portugal’s military defenses.

2. Recaptured Some Lost Colonial Possessions

   • While Dutch Brazil remained contested, Portugal retook parts of Angola and São Tomé.
   • Maintained control of key overseas trade routes.

3. Defeated Spanish Attempts to Reincorporate Portugal

   • The Portuguese Restoration War continued, but Spain was unable to reconquer Portugal.

---

Conclusion: The Founder of the Braganza Dynasty

João IV’s reign was a turning point in Portuguese history, marking:

• The definitive break from Spanish rule.
• The restoration of Portuguese sovereignty, ensuring the survival of the Braganza dynasty.
• The foundation for Portugal’s continued independence, later solidified by the Treaty of Lisbon (1668).

His military leadership, diplomatic skill, and strategic vision earned him the title "The Restorer" (O Restaurador), securing his place as one of Portugal’s most crucial monarchs.

The founders of the East India Company greatly value the eyewitness reports of Ralph Fitch, who in the 1580s had been among the first Englishmen to travel through India and Southeast Asia, on all that he had seen in his travels; they consult him on Indian affairs.

During this time ships belonging to the company arrive in India, commanded by Captain William Hawkins and docking at the Gujarat port of Sura on August 24, 1608.

He carries twenty-five thousand pieces of gold and a personal letter to the Mughal Emperor Jehangir (sometimes also rendered as Cehangir or Ichan Guire) from King James I seeking trade concessions.

London merchants had presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Permission had been granted, and on April 10, 1591, three ships had sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions.

One of them, Edward Bonaventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594.

In 1596, three more ships had sailed east but all had been lost at sea.

Three years later, on September 22, 1599, another group of merchants meets and states their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure", committing £30,133.

Two days later, on September 24, "the Adventurers" reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project.

Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they had nonetheless sought the Queen's unofficial approval to continue, bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £68,373.

The Adventurers convene again a year later.

This time they succeeded, and on December 31,  1600, the Queen grants a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses" under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies.

For a period of fifteen years the charter awards the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan.

Any traders in breach of the charter without a license from the company are liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which goes to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure".

The governance of the company is in the hands of one governor and twenty-four directors or "committees", who make up the Court of Directors.

They, in turn, report to the Court of Proprietors, which appoints them.

Ten committees report to the Court of Directors.

According to tradition, business is initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street.

The Company, along with the Dutch and French counterparts that soon follow, will contend with the Iberians for the domination of world trade as exploration and colonization proceeds apace.

Sir James Lancaster commands the first East India Company voyage in 1601 and returns in 1603.

In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commands the second voyage.

General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, leads the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton.

Alexander Sharpeigh is appointed captain of the company's Ascension, and general or commander of the fourth voyage.

Hereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles) sail from Woolwich on March 14, 1607–08.

Initially, the company struggles in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company.

The company opens a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java will be an important part of the company's trade for twenty years.

The factory in Bantam will be closed in 1683.

During this time ships belonging to the company arriving in India dock at Surat, which is established as a trade transit point in 1608.

The company establishes its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal.

The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompt King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England, but in 1609 he renews the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specifies that the charter will cease to be in force if the trade turns unprofitable for three consecutive years.

The East India Company has managed in two years to build its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal.

Captain Hawkins has persisted at Surat for over two years.

Portuguese pirates have stolen his gold, and tried several times to murder him while on shore.

He returns to England empty-handed.

The next envoy, Paul Canning, lasts only a few months.