The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula is ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that trade extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia.

In North India, Hinduism asserts patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.

By the fourth and fifth centuries, the Gupta Empire has created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain, becoming a model for later Indian kingdoms.

Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, begins to assert itself.

This renewal is reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which finds patrons among an urban elite.

Classical Sanskrit literature flowers as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics make significant advances.