The Hyksos, who are possibly related to the Amorites, seem to be connected with the general migratory movements elsewhere in the Middle East at this time; they apparently destroy the Amorite rule in Byblos, then use their effective, spoke-wheeled war chariots to bring Egypt's Middle Kingdom to an end; perhaps peacefully, perhaps not.

“Hyksos,” probably an Egyptian term for “rulers of foreign lands,” almost certainly designates the foreign dynasts rather than a whole nation.

Little is known about the Hyksos' origin, but they seem to have been ethnically mixed, including a considerable Semitic element, since the Phoenician deities El, Baal, and Anath figure in their pantheon.

Although most of the Hyksos names seem to be Semitic, there may also be a Hurrian element among them.

The Near East (1733–1630 BCE): Hyksos Invasion and Cultural Shifts

The Arrival and Influence of the Hyksos

Around 1720 BCE, Asian nomads known as the Hyksos invade Egypt, signaling the end of the Middle Kingdom. Originating from Asia, these Semitic-speaking peoples establish their rule from Avaris (modern Tell ed-Dab'a/Khata'na) in the eastern Nile Delta. The Hyksos introduce new technologies to Egypt, notably the chariot, fundamentally altering military strategies. The Egyptian Thirteenth Dynasty, already weakened by internal issues such as famine and plague, struggles to resist this incursion. Ultimately, Egypt splinters, ushering in the Second Intermediate Period.

Changes in Nubia (Kush)

Egypt’s withdrawal from Nubia following the Hyksos invasion leads to the collapse of established forts along the Nile. Filling this power vacuum, an indigenous and culturally distinct kingdom emerges at Kerma, near present-day Dongola, becoming a significant regional power independent of Egyptian influence.

Advances in Egyptian Medicine

Medical practices continue to advance during this period. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, dating from the seventeenth century BCE but reflecting even older traditions (possibly as early as 3000 BCE), details treatments for various dental ailments, marking the beginnings of systematic dental extraction.

Political Fragmentation and Dynastic Complexity

Following the brilliant Twelfth Dynasty, Egypt enters a turbulent phase marked by the relatively weaker Thirteenth Dynasty, which rules from Itjtawy, near the Faiyum. Despite internal challenges, this dynasty maintains some degree of governance stability until about 1730 BCE, when increased fragmentation occurs. Dynastic shifts see ephemeral monarchs often dominated by powerful viziers, reflecting diminished royal authority. Notably, King Merneferre Ay (1700–1677 BCE) reigns as a vassal under Hyksos dominance.

Hyksos Governance and Cultural Integration

Under the Hyksos' Fifteenth and Sixteenth dynasties (circa 1648–1540 BCE), Egypt experiences relative peace and prosperity. The Hyksos rulers adopt Egyptian language and religious practices, staffing their administrations largely with Egyptians. Their respectful integration fosters an environment of cultural continuity despite foreign rule.

Canaanite Cities and Urban Expansion

Cities in Canaan, such as Jericho and Tell as-Sakan, witness significant urban renewal during this period. Jericho strengthens and expands its fortifications around 1700 BCE, reflecting growing prosperity. A second city arises atop earlier ruins at Tell as-Sakan, indicating renewed urban development under Hyksos oversight.

Jerusalem's Early Development

In the seventeenth century BCE, Jerusalem witnesses major fortifications, with massive walls constructed to protect its crucial water supply. The city, known earlier as Rusalimum, becomes more prominent, linked culturally and religiously to regional Semitic traditions.

Minoan Influence in Anatolia

Trade with Minoan civilization significantly impacts Anatolia, particularly the city of Miletus, beginning around 1900 BCE. Archaeological findings at Miletus confirm this influence, supporting ancient legends of population influxes from Crete.

Mathematical and Literary Innovations

This period sees considerable advancements in mathematical and literary knowledge. Egyptian fraction notation evolves significantly, as exemplified by texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, which provide detailed mathematical insights. Egyptian literature also flourishes, with notable works emerging or being refined in this period, such as the pseudo-prophetic Prophecy of Neferti and didactic narratives like The Eloquent Peasant.

Legacy of the Middle Kingdom and Transition

The Hyksos invasion decisively ends Egypt’s prosperous Middle Kingdom, transitioning into the politically fragmented Second Intermediate Period. Nonetheless, the era's cultural, intellectual, and technological developments leave lasting legacies, profoundly shaping subsequent Near Eastern civilizations.

Asian nomads called Hyksos invade Egypt around 1720 BCE, ending the Middle Kingdom.

Links with Kush are severed, and forts along the Nile are destroyed.

A culturally distinct indigenous kingdom emerges at Kerma, near present-day Dongola, to fill the vacuum left by the Egyptian withdrawal.

The brilliant Egyptian Twelfth Dynasty had come to an end around 1782 BCE, and been succeeded by the much weaker Thirteenth, which is usually described in later texts as an age of chaos and disorder.

However, the period may have been more peaceful than was once thought since the central government in Itjtawy near the Faiyum would be sustained during most of the dynasty and the country would remain relatively stable.

Unfortunately, the true chronology of this dynasty is difficult to determine as there are few monuments dating from the period.

Many of the kings' names are only known from an odd fragmentary inscription or from scarabs.

Both dynasties rule from Itjtawy ("Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands") near Memphis and el-Lisht, just south of the apex of the Nile Delta.

Egypt has attracted large numbers of Asiatics, partly in order to subsidize the extensive building works and mining undertaken by Amenemhat III.

Egyptian rulers of the Thirteenth Dynasty, which begins in approximately 1773 BCE, are struggling to cope with domestic famine and plague and both too preoccupied and too weak to stop new migrants from traveling to Egypt from Asia.

Egypt’s Middle Kingdom ends, and in the so-called Second Intermediate Period that ensues, the competing Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties rule Egypt while the Semitic-speaking migrants firmly establish themselves in the eastern Delta and adopt Egyptian culture.

Egypt’s Thirteenth dynasty (notated Dynasty XIII) is often combined with Dynasties XI, XII, and XIV under the group title Middle Kingdom.

Other writers separate it from these dynasties and join it to Dynasties XIV through XVII as part of the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt.

Dynasty XIII is from approximately 1773 BCE to sometime after 1650 BCE.

The later kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty appear to be only ephemeral monarchs under the control of a powerful line of viziers, and indeed, it has been suggested that the kingship in this period might have been elective if not actually appointive.

One monarch late in the dynasty, Wahibre Ibiau, may have even been a former vizier.

The splintering of the land had accelerated following the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty king Neferhotep I in 1730 and during the reign of his brother and successor, Sobekhotep IV, when the Hyksos, an Asiatic people, had made their first appearance in the eastern Nile Delta.

The Hyksos (Egyptian heqa khasewet, "foreign rulers", later rendered by Greek writers as Hyksos, the name by which they are known today), rule from Avaris (Egyptian: Hatwaret), built atop the ruins of a Middle Kingdom town that had been captured by the Hyksos and thought to be the modern Tell ed-Dab'a/Khata'na, a few miles from Qantir.

After their takeover, the Hyksos had heavily fortified the city and ruled the country using new technology, specifically the chariot, which the Egyptians had never been witnessed before.

The later Thirteenth Dynasty king Merneferre Ay, who rules from around 1700 BCE to 1677 BCE, appears to have been a mere vassal of the Hyksos princes ruling from Avaris; his successors will hold onto their diminished office until about 1633 BCE.

The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, an Egyptian priest who wrote in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

Manetho recorded that it was during the reign of one "Tutimaios" (who has been identified with Dudimose I, an Egyptian king of the Second Intermediate Period) that the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by Salitis, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, who began to rule Egypt around 1648 BCE, although the precise dates of his rule are unknown.

Forming the Fifteenth and possibly the Sixteenth Dynasties of Egypt, (from about 1648 BCE to 1540 BCE), the Hyksos will rule Lower and Middle Egypt for one hundred and eight years, preferring to reside in northern Egypt.

The two Hyksos dynasties—the great kings of the Fifteenth dominating the vassal chiefs of the Sixteenth—will rule over a time of peace and prosperity in Egypt.

The Hyksos pharaohs respect Egyptian religion and use Egyptian as the language of government, the administration of which is staffed largely by Egyptians.

Tell as-Sakan, serving as a fort, had been the southernmost locality in Palestine during the Middle Bronze Age, and by 1650 BCE, while Egypt is occupied by the Hyksos, a second city develops on the ruins of the first Tell as-Sakan.

The Middle Kingdom ends with the conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos, the so-called Shepherd Kings.

The Hyksos are Semitic nomads who break into the Delta from the northeast and rule Egypt from Avaris in the eastern Delta.

The influence of the Minoan civilization outside Crete manifests itself in the presence of valuable Minoan handicraft items on the Greek mainland.

Aegean metalworkers produce decorative objects rivaling those of Ancient Near East jewelers, whose techniques they seem to have borrowed.