Gaul, Praetorian prefecture of
Years: 395 - 477
After the permanent partition of the Empire in 395 into West and East spheres of control, the prefecture of Gaul continued to belong to the Western Roman Empire.
Augusta Treverorum (present-day Trier in Germany) served as the prefecture's seat until 407 (or, according to other estimates, in 395), when it was transferred to Arelate (Arles).After the permanent partition of the Empire in 395 into West and East spheres of control, the prefecture of Gaul continues to belong to the Western Roman Empire.
Augusta Treverorum (present-day Trier in Germany) serves as the prefecture's seat until 407 (or, according to other estimates, in 395), when it is transferred to Arelate (Arles).The prefecture continues to function until 477, when the last areas under its control Are seized by the Visigoths after the abolition of the Western imperial government of Ravenna in the previous year.
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In recent times some of these bog bodies have emerged very well-preserved, providing valuable information about the religion and people who lived in Denmark during this period.
Some of the most well-preserved bog bodies from the Nordic Iron Age are the Tollund Man and the Grauballe Man.
Depletion of cultivated land in the last century BCE seems to have contributed to increasing migrations in northern Europe and increasing conflict between Teutonic tribes and Roman settlements in Gaul.
Roman artifacts are especially common in finds from the first century.
It seems clear that some part of the Danish warrior aristocracy served in the Roman army.
The second through the sixth centuries is a period of change and destruction in which eastern and western Germanic tribes leave their native lands and settle in newly acquired territories.
This period of Germanic history, which later supplies material for heroic epics, includes the downfall of the Roman Empire and results in a considerable expansion of habitable area for the Germanic peoples.
However, with the exception of those kingdoms established by Franks and Anglo-Saxons, Germanic kingdoms founded in such other parts of Europe as Italy and Spain are of relatively short duration because they are assimilated by the native populations.
The conquest of Roman Gaul by Frankish tribes in the late fifth century becomes a milestone of European history; the Franks will become the founders of a civilized German state.
Stilicho takes another army to Greece in 397 to blockade the Visigoths in Arcadia, but his strategy is once again undercut by ordering his transfer to Italy, this time to punish the African Moors' refusal to ship grain to Rome.
Stilicho promptly imports grain from Gaul and Spain.
The Decline of the Roman Empire
By the late fourth and early fifth centuries, the Roman Empire stands in a state of terminal decline. The division of the empire into eastern and western halves in 395 CE—formalized upon the death of Theodosius I—has only deepened internal political strife, weakening Rome’s ability to resist barbarian incursions along the Danube and even into Italy itself.
The Strength of the East vs. the Weakness of the West
While Germanic tribes break through into the Balkans, they fail to establish permanent settlements there. The Eastern Roman emperors, prioritizing the defense of Constantinople, actively push these tribes westward, forcing them deeper into the Western Empire and exacerbating instability.
Despite political challenges, the Eastern Empire maintains relative stability and prosperity. Constantinople, benefiting from its Greek cultural heritage, emerges as the dominant symbol of civilization in the East. For much of its population—already accustomed to Greek language and traditions—the shift from a Latin Roman Empire to a more Hellenized Byzantine identity is seamless.
By contrast, the Western Empire is crumbling. Repeated barbarian invasions, coupled with rural depopulation, have crippled its economy and defenses. By 400 CE, many tenant farmers have been reduced to a serf-like status, bound to the land by economic necessity and social rigidity. Meanwhile, the Eastern Empire, benefiting from lucrative trade in spices, silk, and luxury goods, remains wealthy and resilient.
The Germanization of Rome
The progressive Germanization of the empire, particularly within the Roman army, is nearly complete. The Goths, like most Germanic tribes—with the notable exception of the Franks and Lombards—have converted to Arian Christianity, a doctrine the Catholic (Orthodox) Romans regard as dangerous heresy.
However, the Roman senatorial aristocracy, largely pacifist and still clinging to its classical traditions, views the warlike Germanic customs with suspicion and hostility. This growing resentment against Germanic leaders in high office fuels political instability in both the Eastern and Western Empires, leading to factionalism and periodic violence.
Yet, despite the tensions, Rome relies on Germanic tribes to defend its imperial frontiers. The Franks, for instance, are settled in Toxandria (modern Brabant) and tasked with guarding the empire’s northern borders—a foreshadowing of their future role as rulers of post-Roman Gaul.
The Weakness of the Western Emperor
The reigning Western Roman emperor, an inexperienced and feeble ruler, has inherited the throne from his father but lacks military expertise. His shortsighted political interventions and inability to command armies only deepen the empire’s crises, as generals struggle to hold the frontiers against an unrelenting tide of barbarian invasions.
Fearing a direct assault on Rome, he relocates the imperial court from Rome to Ravenna, a more defensible stronghold surrounded by marshlands and the sea. From his new capital, he watches as loyal generals suppress usurpers and internal revolts, rather than leading the defense himself.
Meanwhile, the Rhine frontier deteriorates, and the administrative center of Gaul is moved from Trier to Arelate(modern Arles), leaving the northern provinces increasingly vulnerable to Germanic incursions. The combination of military neglect, civil war, and external invasions accelerates the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, setting the stage for the fall of Rome itself in 476 CE.
The Sack of Rome and the Fall of an Empire
For fifteen years, an uneasy peace holds between the Visigoths and the Roman Empire, though tensions remain high. Clashes occasionally erupt between Alaric, the ambitious Visigothic leader, and the Germanic generals who wield real power in the Eastern and Western Roman armies.
The fragile balance collapses in 408 CE, when Honorius, the ineffective Western Roman emperor, orders the execution of Stilicho, his most capable general. In the aftermath, the Roman legions massacre the families of 30,000 barbarian soldiers serving in the imperial army, igniting Visigothic fury. This act of betrayal compels Alaric to declare full-scale war against Rome.
The Road to the Sack of Rome
Alaric initially suffers two defeats in Northern Italy, but he remains undeterred. He marches south and besieges Rome, forcing the city’s desperate leaders to negotiate a payoff to lift the siege. However, after being cheated by another faction within the Roman court, Alaric abandons diplomacy and shifts to a decisive military strategy.
Recognizing Rome’s strategic vulnerability, he captures Portus, the city's vital harbor on the Tiber, cutting off its food supply and forcing its gates open. On August 24, 410, Visigothic troops enter Rome through the Salarian Gate, unleashing a devastating three-day sack of the city.
The Shock of Rome’s Fall
Though Rome is no longer the official capital of the Western Roman Empire—the imperial court had relocated to Ravenna for its defensibility—its fall shakes the empire to its core. The city, long considered the eternal heart of Roman civilization, has not been breached by a foreign enemy in nearly 800 years. Its sack marks a symbolic rupture, signaling to contemporaries that the empire is no longer invulnerable.
The impact reverberates across the Mediterranean world. In the Eastern Empire, Saint Jerome laments: "The city that had conquered the world has itself been conquered." Meanwhile, pagans blame Christianity for Rome’s downfall, prompting Augustine of Hippo to pen The City of God, defending the Christian faith against accusations that abandoning the old gods had led to Rome’s ruin.
Though Alaric dies later in 410, his sack of Rome accelerates the decline of the Western Roman Empire, demonstrating that its military and political structures are collapsing under the weight of internal decay and external pressure.
The Great Invasion of 406 and the Collapse of Roman Defenses
By the early fifth century, the Huns' relentless expansion across Eastern Europe sets off a chain reaction, forcing Germanic and Iranian tribes westward into Roman territory. Among them, the Asdingi and Silingi Vandals, led by King Godigisel, seize the moment as Italy reels from the Visigothic threat, pushing into Roman lands.
Leaving their Upper Danube settlements, they are soon joined by the Alans and some Suebi, forming a vast migratory force. On December 31, 406, this coalition crosses the frozen Rhine at Mainz, launching a massive invasion of Gaul—an event that will permanently alter the fate of the Western Roman Empire.
The Devastation of Gaul and Hispania
The Vandals, Alans, and Suebi, soon followed by Burgundians and bands of Alemanni, sweep across Gaul, overwhelming the federated Franks and Alemanni stationed along the frontiers. The Roman defenses along the Rhine—already strained and undermanned—collapse under the weight of this onslaught.
After devastating northern and central Gaul, the invaders press southward into Hispania, tearing through Roman provinces that have long been integral to the empire’s economic and military stability. The collapse of Roman control in these regions marks a decisive turning point in the decline of the Western Empire.
The Empire’s Mortal Blow
By this time, the empire’s imperial defenses have deteriorated so severely that the Western emperor is forced to abandon Britain, informing its cities that they can no longer rely on Rome for military reinforcements. The Roman army withdraws, leaving the island vulnerable to Saxon, Pictish, and Irish incursions—an event that will eventually lead to the fragmentation of Roman Britain into isolated, competing kingdoms.
For the Western Roman Empire, the Great Invasion of 406 is a mortal wound from which it will never recover. Roman authorities prove incapable of repelling or destroying the invading forces, most of whom will eventually settle in Hispania and North Africa. At the same time, Rome fails to contain the movements of the Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths in Gaul, further eroding imperial control.
The Role of Internal Disunity
A critical factor in Rome’s inability to resist these invasions is internal fragmentation. In the past, a unified empire, backed by a loyal population willing to make sacrifices, had successfully secured Rome’s borders. However, by the early fifth century, political divisions, power struggles, and economic decay have shattered Rome’s ability to muster the cohesion needed for effective defense.
As the empire weakens from within, its once-powerful legions—stretched thin, riddled with internal conflicts, and increasingly reliant on untrustworthy Germanic federates—prove incapable of withstanding the pressure of continuous invasions. With each successive incursion, the Western Empire’s grasp on its provinces weakens, leading inexorably toward its final dissolution.
There had been increasing barbarian incursions into Britain around 396 and an expedition—possibly led by Stilicho—had brought naval action against the raiders.
It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; and indeed by 401 more troops are withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric.
The Vandals under king Godigisel, along with their allies (the Sarmatian Alans and Germanic Suebians) had moved westwards into Roman territory in 400 or 401, possibly because of attacks by the Huns.
Some of the Silingi had joined them later.
Vandals had raided the Roman province of Raetia in the winter of 401/402.
From this, historian Peter Heather concludes that at this time the Vandals were located in the region around the Middle and Upper Danube.
Cultivation of rye, oats, hops, and spelt (a wheat used for livestock feed) is introduced into Europe by the invading Vandals, Alans, and Scirii, who also introduce a heavy wheeled plow to be used for farming.
The Vandals in 401 advance from Pannonia traveling west along the Danube without much difficulty, but when they reach the Rhine, they meet resistance from the Franks under Marcomir, who populate and control Romanized regions in northern Gaul.
Twenty thousand Vandals, including Godigisel himself, die in the resulting battle, but with the help of the Alans, they then manage to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 405 (or 406) the Vandals supposedly cross the Rhine, probably while it is frozen, at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz), beginning an invasion of Gaul.
The Invasion of Gaul: A New Wave of Destruction
The Vandals, Suebi, and Alani, having crossed the Rhine in 406 CE, are quickly followed by a second wave of invaders—the Burgundians and non-federated Alemanni. Unlike the earlier groups, these new arrivals have no prior agreements with Rome and come as unchecked raiders and conquerors, adding to the chaos engulfing Gaul.
As they sweep across Roman territory, these Germanic groups easily overrun the federated Franks and Alemanni, who had been tasked with defending the empire’s northern frontiers. The Roman border defenses—already strained and reliant on these federate forces—crumble in the face of relentless assaults.
With the imperial legions unable to mount an effective response, Gaul descends into anarchy, its cities and countryside devastated by raiders and settlers alike. This breakdown of Roman authority further accelerates the decline of the Western Roman Empire, leaving vast territories beyond effective imperial control.