The French and the British East India company initiate a protracted struggle for military control of South India in the middle of the eighteenth century.

The period is marked by shifting alliances between the two East India companies and the local powers, mercenary armies employed by all sides, and general anarchy in South India.

Cities and forts change hands many times, and soldiers are primarily remunerated through loot.

The four Anglo-Mysore Wars and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars see Mysore, the Marathas and Hyderabad aligning themselves in turns with either the British or the French.

Eventually, British power in alliance with Hyderabad prevails and Mysore is absorbed as a princely state within British India.

The Nizam of Hyderabad seeks to retain his autonomy through diplomacy rather than open war with the British.

The Maratha Empire that stretches across large swathes of central and northern India is broken up, with most of it annexed by the British.

Coromandel screens, ebony folding screens with panels of incised black lacquer, often painted gold or other colors and frequently decorated by the application of jade and other semiprecious stones, shell, or porcelain, have as many as twelve leaves and are of considerable size.

Scenes of Chinese life or landscape are typical, but European hunting or nautical scenes are also popular.

Although these screens have probably been made in northern or central China during the Kangxi period (1661–1722) of the Qing dynasty, they have receive their name from India's Coromandel coast, whence they are transshipped to Europe in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries by merchants of the English and French East India companies.

Dutch traders also carried these screens from Bantam in Java, and in early accounts they are frequently called Bantam screens as well as Coromandel screens.

Many of the imported screens are cut up in the eighteenth century to make panels for the decoration of various kinds of cabinet furniture.

Gulf and Western North America (1720–1731 CE): Indigenous Alliances, European Expansion, and Tribal Migrations

Indigenous Migrations and Cultural Transformations

The Cheyenne become the first of the later Plains tribes to enter the Black Hills and Powder River Country, where they introduce horses to the Lakota around 1730. Pressure from migrating Lakota and Ojibwe pushes the Cheyenne further west, subsequently displacing the Kiowa further south.

The Arapaho, having moved farther south, split into Northern and Southern groups, establishing expansive territories across Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Oklahoma, and Kansas. A significant faction of Arapaho separates, becoming known as the Gros Ventre (or Atsina). Despite linguistic and cultural similarities, the Gros Ventre are viewed as inferior by their Arapaho kin.

Expansion of European Colonial Influence

France intensifies its colonial efforts in Louisiana, spreading settlements along the Mississippi River and its tributaries from New Orleans northward to the Illinois Country. Recognizing the strategic importance of the Mississippi River, France formally designates New Orleans as the colony's capital in 1722. German settlers, brought by John Law's Company of the Indies, establish communities along the "German Coast" in the early 1720s. When the company collapses in 1731, these settlers transition to independent landowners.

The Spanish, meanwhile, reduce their military presence in East Texas in the late 1720s, relocating vulnerable missions to San Antonio and intensifying their conflict with the Lipan Apache, who transfer their enmity toward Spain. In response, the Spanish crown elevates Texas to provincial status in 1728 and begins repopulating the region by settling Canary Islanders (Isleños) in San Antonio by 1731.

Indigenous Alliances, Conflicts, and Diplomacy

The Osage actively ally with the French against the Illiniwek, deepening their diplomatic and trade relationships. French explorer Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, establishes Fort Orleans in Osage territory, the first European fort on the Missouri River. In a notable diplomatic event in 1725, Bourgmont brings a delegation of Osage leaders to Paris, significantly reinforcing Franco-Osage relations.

In Texas, the establishment of the mission-presidio complex of La Bahía del Espiritu Santo near the San Antonio River in 1722 initially fosters peaceful relations with the Karankawa, though conflict erupts by 1723. By 1727, escalating hostility from the Karankawa compels the Spanish to relocate the complex inland to the Guadalupe River, effectively limiting Spanish influence along the Texas coast.

The Natchez Wars and Indigenous Slave Trade

Continued rivalry between pro-French and pro-English Natchez villages erupts in repeated conflicts known as the Natchez Wars, culminating in the devastating Natchez Rebellion of 1729. French retaliation, supported by the Choctaw, decimates the Natchez, Yazoo, and Koroa tribes. Many survivors flee to join the Chickasaw, while others are captured and sold into slavery by Carolina-based traders. This period highlights the destructive impact of European-induced indigenous conflicts and slave trading.

Key Historical Developments

• Cheyenne migration into the Black Hills, introduction of horse culture to the Lakota, and subsequent displacement of Kiowa.

• French colonial expansion along the Mississippi River, establishment of New Orleans as capital, and settlement of German communities on the "German Coast."

• Spanish reduction of military presence in East Texas and relocation of missions to San Antonio, intensifying conflict with the Lipan Apache.

• Diplomatic relations between Osage leaders and France, highlighted by their diplomatic mission to Paris in 1725.

• Natchez Wars leading to significant tribal displacement, slavery, and the reconfiguration of indigenous power dynamics.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 1720 to 1731 significantly reshaped the cultural and political landscapes of Gulf and Western North America. Indigenous migrations and intertribal dynamics, driven by European colonization and conflicts, resulted in major territorial and demographic shifts. The expansion of European colonies intensified competition among European powers, reshaping alliances and fueling indigenous conflicts with lasting effects on regional stability and cultural survival.

Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, had written to the Directors of the Company of the Indies in 1717 that he had discovered a crescent bend in the Mississippi River which he felt was safe from tidal waves and hurricanes and proposed that the new capitol of the colony be build there.

Permission was granted, and Bienville set off in 1718 to start construction.

A sufficient number of huts and storage houses had been built by 1719 that Bienville began moving supplies and troops from Mobile.

Following disagreements with the chief engineer of the colony, Le Blond de la Tour, Bienville orders an assistant engineer, Adrien de Pauger, to draw up plans for the new city in 1720.

Pauger draws up the eleven-by-seven block rectangle now known as the French Quarter or the Vieux Carre.

After moving into his new home on the site of what is now the Custom House, Bienville names the new city "La Nouvelle-Orléans" in honor of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Prince Regent of France.

France, which already controls neighboring Île Bourbon (now Réunion), had taken control of Mauritius in 1715 and renamed it Isle de France.

The Code Noir had been established in 1723, to categorize one group of human beings as "goods", in order for the owner of these goods to be able to obtain insurance money and compensation in case of loss of his "goods".

The arrival of French governor Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais in 1735 coincides with development of a prosperous economy based on sugar production.

Mahé de La Bourdonnais establishes Port Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding center.

Under his governorship, numerous buildings had been erected, a number of which are still standing.

These include part of Government House, the Château de Mon Plaisir, and the Line Barracks, the headquarters of the police force.

The island is under the administration of the French East India Company, which will maintain its presence until 1767.

Britain and France become bitter rivals at this time.

Frequent skirmishes between them take place for control of colonial possessions.

The British government, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, agrees in 1742 to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £1 million.

Gulf and Western North America (1732–1743 CE): Colonial Conflict and Indigenous Resistance

Escalating Tensions with the Karankawa

By the 1730s, the Spanish increasingly view the Karankawa and other native tribes of the Texas region as major obstacles to establishing effective control over northern New Spain. Ongoing hostility and raids by the Karankawa lead to frequent confrontations with Spanish settlers and military forces, significantly limiting Spanish colonization and influence along the Gulf coast.

Expansion and Alliances in French Louisiana

French colonial influence continues to expand throughout Louisiana, solidifying its network of forts, trading posts, and settlements along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Settlements around New Orleans, along with growing German communities on the German Coast, contribute to the colony's economic and demographic strength. The French maintain strategic alliances with regional tribes, particularly the Choctaw, who serve as vital allies in containing English colonial ambitions and resisting other indigenous groups hostile to French interests.

Indigenous Realignments and Conflict

The aftermath of the devastating Natchez Wars continues to shape regional dynamics. Survivors of displaced groups, including the Natchez, Yazoo, and Koroa, integrate into new tribal communities or endure captivity, exacerbating existing tensions. The Chickasaw, allied with English traders, intensify their raids against neighboring tribes aligned with French interests, further destabilizing the region.

In the Plains, the earlier migrations and the introduction of horses continue reshaping indigenous societies. Tribes like the Cheyenne and Comanche increasingly dominate the region through enhanced mobility and effective equestrian warfare. The Arapaho consolidate their territories, while the displaced Kiowa continue adapting to new territories further south.

Spanish Strategies and Canary Islander Settlements

Spain's efforts to strengthen its colonial presence result in the continued settlement of Canary Islanders (Isleños) in the San Antonio region. These settlements bolster the population and defenses of the province, offering strategic counterweights to indigenous and external threats. Despite these efforts, the limited military presence and persistent hostility from native groups restrict broader Spanish expansion and settlement effectiveness in Texas.

Key Historical Developments

• Persistent conflict between Spanish settlers and the Karankawa tribes, hindering Spanish colonization in Texas.

• Expansion and strengthening of French settlements in Louisiana, with alliances, particularly with the Choctaw, playing critical roles.

• Continued repercussions of the Natchez Wars leading to increased Chickasaw raids and further tribal displacements.

• Continued transformation of Plains indigenous societies through equestrian mobility and warfare.

• Spanish reinforcement of Texas settlements through continued Canary Islander immigration and establishment in San Antonio.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1732 to 1743 marks ongoing tensions between European colonial powers and indigenous populations in Gulf and Western North America. Spanish efforts to consolidate Texas face severe indigenous resistance, limiting their control and paving the way for future conflicts. Simultaneously, French alliances and strategies in Louisiana strengthen their colonial foothold, influencing future political and cultural landscapes in the region.

The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb had been succeeded on his death in 1707 by Bahadur Shah I, but there had been a general decline in central control over the empire during the tenure of Jahandar Shah and later Mughals.

Several erstwhile Mughal colonies have revolted.

The Carnatic, despite being under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad, had been ruled since 1732 ruled by Nawab Dost Ali, whose death in 1740 had sparked a power struggle between his son-in-law Chanda Sahib and the Nizam's nominee, Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan.

The trading companies of both Britain and France have maintained cordial relations among themselves in India while their parent countries are bitter enemies on the European continent, having gone to war in 1740 over the succession to the throne of Austria.

H. H. Dodwell writes, "Such were the friendly relations between the English and the French that the French sent their goods and merchandise from Pondicherry to Madras for safe custody." (Dodwell, H. H. (ed), Cambridge History of India, Vol. v.)

Joseph François Dupleix was born in Landrecies, France.

His father, François Dupleix, a wealthy farmer, wished to bring him up as a merchant, and, in order to distract him from his taste for science, had sent him on a voyage to India in 1715 on one of the French East India Company's vessels.

After making several voyages to the Americas and India, he had in 1720 been named a member of the superior council at Pondicherry.

Displaying great business aptitude, he had made large ventures on his own account and acquired a fortune in the course of discharging his official duties.

He had been made superintendent of French affairs in 1730 in the town of Chandernagore, which had prospered under his administration and grown to great importance.

He had married Pondicherry-born Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the councilors of the company, in 1741.

Her father had been Company surgeon; her mother, also known as Rosa de Castro, was a creole of partly Italian, partly Portuguese and Indian parentage from Madras.

Albert, known to the Hindus as Joanna Begum,  had soon proved of great help to her husband in his negotiations with the native princes.

His reputation had resulted in his appointment in 1742 as governor general of the French establishment in India, succeeding Pierre Benoît Dumas as the French governor of Pondicherry.

His ambition now is to acquire for France vast territories in India, and for this purpose he has entered into relations with the native princes, and adopted a style of oriental splendor in his dress and surroundings.

He has built an army of native troops, called sepoys, who had been trained as infantrymen men in his service, including Hyder Ali, later to become famous as the de facto ruler of Mysore.

The British have become alarmed by Dupleix’s ambition, but the danger to their settlements and power is partly averted by the bitter mutual jealousy which exists between Dupleix and Bertrand François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, French governor of the Isle of Bourbon (today's La Réunion).

An unofficial war later called the First Carnatic War takes place in 1746 between the British East India Company and the French Compagnie des Indes when, after the British initially capture a few French ships, the French call for backup from as far afield as Mauritius, and on September 21 1746, capture the British city of Madras.

Among the prisoners of war is Robert Clive.

Dupleix opposes the restoration of the town to the British, thus violating the treaty signed by La Bourdonnais.