The Mediterranean, or Greek, Dark Ages see the near-total collapse of Aegean and Near Eastern civilization, and cultures in other parts of the world experience similar fates, in the centuries between 1200 BCE and 900 BCE.

Near East (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Delta Kingdoms, Aegean City-Coasts, Arabian Caravan Seeds

Geographic and Environmental Context

The Near East includes Egypt, Sudan, Israel, most of Jordan, western Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, southwestern Cyprus, and western Turkey (Aeolis, Ionia, Doris, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, Troas) plus Tyre (extreme SW Lebanon).

• Anchors: the Nile Valley and Delta; Sinai–Negev–Arabah; the southern Levant (with Tyre as the sole Levantine node in this subregion); Hejaz–Asir–Tihāma on the Red Sea; Yemen’s western uplands/coast; southwestern Cyprus; western Anatolian littoral (Smyrna–Ephesus–Miletus–Halicarnassus–Xanthos; Troad).

Climate & Environment

• Nile floods oscillated; Aegean coastal plains fertile; Arabian west slope aridity increased, highland terraces scaled slowly.

Societies & Settlement

• Lower/Upper Egypt (full Pharaonic cores just south but contiguous influence); Aegean Anatolia (Minoan/Mycenaean interactions; later Aeolian/Ionian/Dorian successors).

• Levantine Tyre (within this subregion) arose as Phoenician node; Arabian west oases supported caravan precursors; Yemen west highlands nurtured terrace farming and incense beginnings.

Technology

• Bronze widespread; early iron in Anatolia/Levant; sail-powered shipping matured; terracing and cisterns in Hejaz–Yemen highlands.

Corridors

• Nile–Delta–Aegean maritime bridge; Tyre connected to Cyprus/Anatolia; Red Sea coastal cabotage began; Incense path seeds in Yemen–Hejaz.

Symbolism

• Egyptian temple cosmology radiated north; Aegean cults at capes; Tyrian Melqart/Asherah; Arabian highland local cults.

Adaptation

• Floodplain–coastal–terrace redundancy stabilized economies; incense gardens hedged aridity.

The Middle East: 1629–1486 BCE

Migration, Conquest, and Cultural Realignment

Semitic Settlements and the Arrival of the Hebrews

By the middle of the second millennium BCE, Semitic nomadic groups have increasingly settled in the Jordan Valley, gradually assimilating local populations and transforming the region into a predominantly Semitic linguistic area. The nomadic western Semitic group known as the Habiru, meaning wanderers or outsiders, includes the ancestral figure Abraham (Ibrahim), whose household enters the region from Mesopotamia. This movement marks the earliest identifiable presence of what will become the Hebrew people.

Hyksos Invasion and Egyptian Reconfiguration

The abrupt arrival of the Hyksos, a Semitic people from the north, dramatically reshapes the region as they invade Egypt via Canaan around 1600 BCE. Their rule over Egypt (c. 1600–1570 BCE) temporarily disrupts Egyptian influence, but the liberation war led by Ahmose I (1570–1545 BCE) restores native Egyptian control, reshaping geopolitical dynamics across the Levant.

Indo-European Expansion and Hittite-Kassite Alliance

Around 1600 BCE, Indo-European-speaking tribes initiate a period of widespread migration and settlement. One group, the Hittites, allies with the Kassites, a mountain people of uncertain origins, to conquer and destroy Babylon. The fall of Amorite power coincides with increased Egyptian dominance over Syria, further reshuffling regional power structures.

Hittite Ascendancy in Anatolia

The Hittite conquest of Anatolia accelerates during this period, with key victories such as the conquest of Aleppo (Yamhad) by the Hittite king Hattusili I. The Hittites introduce the chariot into warfare and establish a constitutional monarchy, evidenced by surviving legal tablets. Their legal system demonstrates a remarkable aversion to capital punishment, favoring reparations or forced labor instead.

Hurrian Expansion and the Rise of Mitanni

The Hurrians, whose original homeland lies in the Khabur River valley, significantly expand their territory westward into northern Syria and southern Anatolia by 1725 BCE, notably influencing cities such as Alalakh (Tell Atchana). Following the collapse of Babylon after its sacking by the Hittite king Mursili I, the Hurrian states coalesce into the powerful kingdom of Mitanni, filling a regional power vacuum.

Kassite Dynasty and Babylonian Continuity

The Kassite dynasty emerges in Babylon around 1531 BCE, inaugurating over four centuries of rule. Though culturally distinct and speaking a language isolate, the Kassites continue Babylon's religious and administrative traditions, maintaining Babylon (Kar-Duniash) as a significant regional center. Notably, Kassite kings do not adopt the divine attributes previously common among Babylonian rulers.

Economic and Cultural Networks

Strategic cities such as Ugarit and Byblos remain economically significant, maintaining connections despite disruptions caused by the Hyksos presence. Cyprus (Alashiya) emerges as a major copper supplier, fostering trade relationships with Ugarit and Egypt. Technological innovations, including improved plowshares in northern Mesopotamia around 1600 BCE and advancements in pottery and metallurgy, facilitate sustained economic development.

Religious and Cultural Developments

In religious contexts, significant deities such as El, Asherah, and Baal dominate in Levantine cities like Ugarit, reflecting Canaanite religious practices. The prominence of temples, such as the architecturally sophisticated temple at Tepe Gawra, underscores continued religious significance in civic life. Additionally, the era witnesses early developments in iron metallurgy attributed to peoples of the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia.

Elamite Resurgence and Ebla’s Decline

In southern Iran, the Elamite capital Susa thrives briefly under the later Epartid dynasty, though its influence diminishes following the Kassite consolidation in Babylon. Meanwhile, Ebla experiences its final destruction around 1575–1525 BCE, likely due to Hittite military campaigns, effectively ending its historical prominence.

Urban and Architectural Innovation

New architectural forms emerge, such as the megaron house, a structural innovation originating in northern Mesopotamia around 1800 BCE. This period also marks advancements in urban planning, with monumental temple complexes and fortified urban centers reflecting a sophisticated approach to city-building and defense.

This era encompasses significant migrations, military conquests, cultural integrations, and technological innovations, collectively reshaping the Middle Eastern geopolitical and cultural landscape profoundly.

Damascus is among the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world.

Excavations at Tell Ramad on the outskirts of have demonstrated that the city has been inhabited as early as 8000 to 10,000 BCE.

Damascus is designated as having been part of the ancient province of Amurru in the Hyksos Kingdom, from 1720 to 1570 BCE. (MacMillan, pp.30-31).

The Near East (1629–1486 BCE): Revival, Expansion, and Cultural Innovation

Egyptian Revival and the New Kingdom

Egyptian power revives dramatically during the New Kingdom (ca. 1570–1100 BCE) under the founding pharaoh, Ahmose I, who expels the Hyksos around 1567 BCE. Ahmose I incorporates Kush into Egypt as a province governed by a viceroy, extending administrative control down to the fourth cataract. Tributary regions reach as far as the Red Sea and the confluence of the Blue and White Nile rivers. Local Kushite chiefs ensure loyalty through tributary payments of gold and slaves and by sending their children as pages to the pharaoh's court.

Architectural and Burial Innovations

Around 1500 BCE, Pharaoh Amenhotep I moves away from pyramid construction, introducing rock-hewn tombs in the cliffs of western Thebes (modern Luxor). His successors adopt this innovation, creating tomb complexes in the Valley of the Kings and nearby valleys for queens and princes, setting a lasting architectural precedent.

Cypriot Cultural Developments

During this era, Cyprus undergoes significant cultural shifts. Many Neolithic villages are abandoned as populations relocate to the central plain (Mesaoria) and mountain foothills. Cypriot pottery acquires distinctive shapes and designs, and small figurines representing fertility goddesses appear. Influences from the Minoan civilization of Crete are significant, though few Minoans settle permanently. A script developed for Cypriot commerce remains undeciphered.

Nubian Civilization at Kerma

The indigenous Nubian state centered at Kerma reaches its zenith, marked by original ceramics and considerable affluence, especially prominent during Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period. This kingdom poses a significant challenge to Egypt’s southern borders during periods of internal Egyptian strife.

Literary and Artistic Flourishing

The Egyptian Coffin Texts evolve into the more standardized Book of the Dead during the Eighteenth Dynasty, featuring detailed funeral and judgment scenes illustrated on papyrus. Egyptian art enters a classic phase marked by refined elegance and precision, while traditional artistic standards are maintained.

Advances in Medicine and Technology

Significant medical advancements include the detailed medical instructions of the Ebers Papyrus (circa 1600 BCE), offering valuable treatments and prescriptions, including castor oil and tannic acid. Egyptians also adopt the water clock by around 1600 BCE, enhancing their precision in time measurement. The introduction of opium for both medicinal and surgical purposes is documented, reflecting advanced pharmaceutical knowledge.

Hyksos Cultural Legacy and Integration

Although expelled, the Hyksos leave behind a notable cultural legacy. Egyptians adopt Hyksos military innovations such as the chariot and composite bow. Minoan-like frescoes at Avaris, the former Hyksos capital, indicate extensive trade with the broader Aegean world. Egyptian culture integrates elements from these Semitic rulers, including pottery styles, architectural designs, and fortifications.

Urban and Trade Expansion in Canaan

Canaanite cities like Jericho, Shechem, Tell as-Sakan, and Gaza prosper significantly during this period. Jericho expands its fortifications around 1700 BCE and reaches its Bronze Age zenith before its destruction around 1550 BCE. Gaza becomes strategically significant, reflecting increased competition among regional empires until its destruction linked to the expulsion of the Hyksos.

Jerusalem and the Hyksos Connection

Jerusalem, historically referenced as Rusalimum, undergoes significant fortifications to protect its water systems. Legends recorded later by Egyptian historian Manetho associate Jerusalem’s early prominence with Hyksos activity, connecting the city with broader regional shifts and potential origins of early Hebrew narratives.

Mathematical Innovations

This era witnesses continued sophistication in mathematics, notably Egyptian fraction notation illustrated by texts like the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and Moscow Mathematical Papyrus. These texts advance mathematical thought and provide extensive insight into Egyptian numerical practices.

Political Reunification and Egyptian Dominance

The expulsion of the Hyksos around 1570 BCE and subsequent reunification of Egypt under Ahmose I mark the rise of the Eighteenth Dynasty, inaugurating a celebrated era of Egyptian history marked by territorial expansion, centralized power, cultural innovation, and enduring influence across the Near East.

The construction of rock tombs for the pharaohs and the elite is one of the innovations of the New Kingdom period.

Pharaoh Amenhotep I abandons the pyramid around 1500 BCE in favor of a rock-hewn tomb in the crags of western Thebes (present-day Luxor).

His example is followed by his successors, who for the next four centuries will cut their tombs in the Valley of the Kings and build their mortuary temples on the plain below.

Other wadis or river valleys will subsequently be used for the tombs of queens and princes.

Egyptian power revives during the New Kingdom (ca. 1570-1100 BCE), whose founding pharaoh, Ahmose I, incorporates Kush as an Egyptian province governed by a viceroy.

Egypt's administrative control of Kush extends down only to the fourth cataract, but Egyptian sources list tributary districts reaching to the Red Sea and upstream to the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers.

Egyptian authorities ensure the loyalty of local chiefs by drafting their children to serve as pages at the pharaoh's court.

Egypt also expects tribute in gold and slaves from local chiefs.

The first developed societies in the region of Nubia, located in what is today northern Sudan, had arisen before the time of the First dynasty of Egypt (3100-2890 BCE).

Egyptians had begun moving south around 2500 BCE, and it is through them that most of our knowledge of Kush (Cush) comes.

Kushitic civilization, centered along the upper Nile in Nubia (in present Sudan), reaches its peak between 1750 and 1500.

Kerma, the capital city of the Kingdom of Kerma, in present day Egypt and Sudan, an archaeological site as old as five thousand years, becomes a real Nubian state during the second millennium BCE.

Kerma has a distinctly Nubian civilization with fine and original ceramics.

The level of affluence at the site demonstrates the power of the Kingdom of Kerma, especially during the Second Intermediate Period when the Nubians threaten the southern borders of Egypt.

The earliest known forms of the table date from about the sixteenth century BCE in Egypt.

A standard temple plan, often on a monumental scale, is established, with floral motifs as characteristic decoration on the columns.