Maritime East Asia (100–243 CE): Decline of Han Dynasty and Increasing Turbulence

Between 100 CE and 243 CE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—faces mounting internal struggles, administrative breakdown, and rebellions that mark the decline and eventual collapse of the Han dynasty.

Continued Han Rule and Increasing Strains

After a brief interruption by Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty (9–24 CE), the Han dynasty had been restored and continues for nearly two centuries more. However, the restored Han rulers struggle to manage a vastly expanded population, increasing economic wealth paired with financial instability, and increasingly complex bureaucratic and political institutions. Administrative corruption spreads widely, a classic symptom of dynastic decline.

Peasant and Taoist Rebellions

Persistent dissatisfaction among peasants leads to widespread agrarian rebellions, exacerbating the empire's instability. Taoist-inspired movements, notably the Yellow Turban Rebellion, challenge Han authority, advocating egalitarian ideals and drawing massive popular support, further weakening imperial governance and draining critical resources from central authority.

Fragmentation and Collapse

The cumulative effect of internal corruption, administrative inefficiency, and recurrent rebellions severely undermines the Han dynasty's stability. By 220 CE, the Han Empire formally collapses, fragmenting into several competing states. This collapse ushers in the Three Kingdoms Period, profoundly altering China's political and social landscape for centuries.

Legacy of the Age: Transition and Fragmentation

Thus, the age from 100 to 243 CE is characterized by mounting administrative strain, widespread popular discontent, and internal rebellions culminating in the definitive collapse of the Han dynasty. These events set the stage for a prolonged period of fragmentation, warfare, and eventual reorganization that reshapes East Asian political dynamics.

The Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history is part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty emperors.

In a strict academic sense, it refers to the period between the foundation of the Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin Dynasty in 280.

Many scholars extend the starting point of this period back to the uprising of the Yellow Turbans in 184.

The three kingdoms are Wei, Shu, and Wu.

Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign, also known as the War of Pacification in Nanzhong, is a military campaign led by Shu Han chancellor Zhuge Liang to suppress opposing forces in the South in 225.

The campaign is a response to rebellions started by local governors in the southern region of Nanzhong and intrusions by the Nanman (literally: "southern barbarians").

Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions are a series of five military campaigns launched by the state of Shu Han against the rival state of Cao Wei from 228.

China’s Later Han Dynasty collapses by 221, due largely to economic woes and intense political factionalism at court.

Massive peasant rebellion and the resulting dissolution of the empire lead to the so-called Period of Disunion.

A series of semi-Sinicized barbarian peoples rule North China; Chinese colonial regimes settle the south.

Three separate kingdoms replace the empire (in what later historians will call the “Three Kingdoms” period.)

Confucianism is discredited and aristocrats, rather than the Confucian-tested morally superior men, dominate the governments.

Fierce racial tension and great physical destruction ensues.

The nomadic Turkic-speaking bandits known as the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), based in Mongolia, begin to threaten China’s borders.

Cao Cao, chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty and Prince of Wei, as well as the warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, have continued over the past several years, to consolidate their power in their respective regions.

Through many wars, China has become divided into three powers—Wei, Shu and Wu, which have fought sporadic battles without the balance tipping significantly in anyone's favor.

Cao Cao is an accomplished poet, as are his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi, collectively known as the "Three Caos".

Cao Cao is also a a patron of poets such as Xu Gan.

Of Cao's works, only a remnant remain today.

His verses, unpretentious yet profound, help to reshape the poetic style of his time and beyond, eventually contributing to the poetry styles associated with Tang Dynasty poetry.

Together with certain other poets, the poetry of the “Three Caos” forms the backbone of what is known as the Jian'an style.

Jian'an is the era name for the period from 196 to 220, the final era of the Han Dynasty; however, poets such as those of the Cao family will continue to write and develop poetry in this style after the end of the Han and after the founding of the Cao Wei dynasty: these are the "Jian'an" poets.

Poetry has been affected by civil strife towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, contributing to the Jian'an poems' often solemn yet heart-stirring tone, frequently lamenting the ephemeral nature of life.

From the early folk songs characteristic of Han poetry, the Jian'an poetry represents a transition towards a more scholarly poetry characteristic of Six Dynasties poetry.

Cao Cao and other Jian'an poets are specifically noted for developments to the characteristic Han fu (or yuefu).

While keeping some features, the uneven line lengths derived from the folksong or ballad tradition are eliminated, or changed into a regular five-character line-length style—very similar and inspirational to the regular five-character line shi poetry of the Tang Dynasty.

Cao Cao himself also is noted for his ballad style verse, which he apparently sets to music.

At this time, elaborate percussion orchestras of bells, cymbals, drums, gongs and triangles accompany the chants of Chinese Buddhism.

Cao Cao also writes verse in the older four-character per line style characteristic of the Shijing "Classic Odes".

One of Cao's most celebrated poems is in the old four-character line style: written during the Battle of White Wolf Mountain against the northern Wuhuan in 207, it is titled Though the Tortoise Lives Long.

Another of Cao Cao's most well known poems, written right before the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208, is Short Song Style.

Cao Zhi uses folk songs and simple language styles.

Cao Pi makes his move for the imperial throne in the winter of 220, strongly suggesting to Emperor Xian that he should yield the throne.

Emperor Xian does so, and Cao Pi formally declines three times (a model that will be followed by future usurpers in Chinese history), and then finally accepts, ending the Han Dynasty and starting a new Wei Dynasty.

The former Emperor Xian is created the Duke of Shanyang.

Cao Pi posthumously honors his grandfather Cao Song and father Cao Cao as emperors, and his mother Princess Dowager Bian as empress dowager.

He also moves the imperial capital from Xu (in modern Xuchang, Henan) to Luoyang.

Liu Bei declares himself emperor as well, establishing Shu Han, after news of Cao Pi's ascension (and an accompanying false rumor that Cao had executed Emperor Xian) arrives in Liu Bei's domain of Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing).

Sun Quan, who controls the vast majority of modern southeastern and southern China, takes no affirmative steps one way or another, leaving his options open.

An armed conflict between Liu and Sun quickly develops, because in 219, Sun Quan's general Lü Meng had invaded and annexed Liu Bei's territory in Jing Province (modern Hubei and Hunan).

Guan Yu, the general appointed by Liu Bei to defend Jing Province, had been captured after his defeat and executed on Sun Quan's order.

Liu Bei was enraged by the sudden attack because Sun Quan was formerly his ally, and also due to his close relationship with Guan Yu.

Liu now wants to take vengeance on Sun for Guan Yu's death.

Many of his subjects, including Zhao Yun, oppose his decision, but Liu Bei ignores them.

As Liu Bei mobilized his troops in preparation for the attack on Sun Quan, another of his generals, Zhang Fei, is growing impatient with the preparations for war, so he imposes strict deadlines on his subordinates Fan Qiang and Zhang Da, but his subordinates fail to meet the time limit.

Zhang Fei disparages them before warning them that they will be executed under military law if they founder again.

Out of fear, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da kill Zhang Fei while he is asleep, cut off his head, and defect to Sun Quan.

Liu Bei is overwhelmed with grief over the loss of two of his generals, who had accompanied him since the beginning of his military career.

Zhang Fei's death hardens his decision to attack Wu for revenge.

Again, many Shu officials attempt to dissuade Liu Bei from attacking Sun Quan, but Liu dismisses their advice.

Eventually, Liu Bei departs from his capital, Chengdu, with a large army and advances towards Jing Province on both land and water (along the Yangtze River).

He leaves his chancellor Zhuge Liang and crown prince Liu Shan to defend Chengdu.

Sun, to avoid having to fight on two fronts, formally pays allegiance to Cao, offering to be a vassal of Cao Wei.

Cao's strategist Liu Ye suggests that Cao decline and instead attack Sun on a second front, which would effectively partition Sun's domain with Shu Han, and would eventually allow Cao to destroy Shu Han as well.

Such an opportunity will not come again.

Cao declines this suggestion, a fateful choice that most historians believe doomed his empire to ruling only northern and central China.

Indeed, against Liu Ye's advice, he creates Sun the Prince of Wu and grants him the nine bestowments.

Sun Quan’s forces, due to their superiority in numbers, initially underestimate the enemy's tenacity.

As the advancing Shu army captures regions including Zigui, Wu County, Mount Ba and Mount Xing, Sun Quan’s forces that set out from their fortifications to engage the enemy are nearly all annihilated.

The initial defeat causes Sun Quan to decide to adopt Lu Xun's strategy and appoint Lu as Grand Viceroy (de facto commander-in-chief of Sun Quan's forces).

Sun Quan’s forces, realizing that the Shu troops are better versed in warfare in mountainous terrain as they are mostly ground troops, decide to abandon their defenses at certain territories and retreat to vital positions and defend them instead.

After this, they intend to hold on to these positions and wait for an opportunity to launch a counterattack.

Shu naval forces led by Wu Ban and Chen Shi capture Yiling in January 222.

Liu Bei builds his headquarters in Zigui but does not stay there for long as his forces continue to make progress and push further into the heartland of Sun Quan’s territories.

The Shu vanguard breaks through enemy lines at Yidao in February and defeats Sun Quan’s defenders in an engagement outside the city.

Sun Quan’s general Sun Huan, who is guarding Yidao, retreats with his remaining troops into the city and holds on to his position until a stalemate is reached.