The Al-Khalifa family, led by joint monarchs, cooperates in 1811 with the Omanis against the Wahabbis, and resumes control of Bahrain.

The Near and Middle East (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Decline, Nations in Transition, and Oil in Ascendancy

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East includes three fixed subregions:

• The Near East — Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, southwestern Turkey, and southwestern Cyprus.

• The Middle East — Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, eastern Jordan, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman.

• Southeast Arabia — southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and the island of Socotra.

This vast region links the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Caspian Basin, bridging Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is dominated by deserts and highlands, punctuated by fertile river valleys (the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates) and strategic straits — the Suez Canal, the Bab el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz — that define global trade and geopolitics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Aridity remained the defining condition. The 19th century brought episodes of famine and epidemic following droughts in Egypt, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula. Irrigation schemes and canal building, such as the Suez Canal (opened 1869) and the Assiut Barrage (1902), transformed riverine agriculture. Petroleum exploration and urban expansion in the 20th century accelerated desertification and water demand. Monsoon moisture sustained oases in Oman and Yemen, while seasonal Nile floods continued until the Aswan High Dam (1960–70) reshaped the river’s ecology.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian bases persisted in the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Iranian Plateau, producing wheat, cotton, dates, and fruits.

• Nomadic and pastoral tribes in Arabia, the Levant, and Sudan maintained camel and sheep herding, adapting to modern markets.

• Urbanization surged in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Baghdad, Beirut, and Jeddah, intensified by European trade and oil wealth.

• Port cities—Aden, Basra, Kuwait City, Manama, and Doha—grew into nodes of global commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

European imperial penetration introduced telegraphs, railways (notably the Hejaz Railway, 1908), and modern weaponry. In the 20th century, oil extraction and refining brought pipelines, tankers, and industrial zones. Traditional crafts—carpets, calligraphy, metalwork, and ceramics—remained vital symbols of identity. Concrete architecture and Western education transformed cities, while mosques and bazaars continued as cultural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade routes: The Suez Canal reoriented world shipping; the Persian Gulf became an oil artery.

• Pilgrimage: The Hajj connected Muslims globally through Mecca and Medina.

• Migration: Rural–urban drift filled cities; labor migration later linked Yemenis, Egyptians, and Iranians to Gulf oil fields.

• Military corridors: The Near and Middle East served as theaters of imperial rivalries—British in the Gulf and Egypt, Russians in the Caucasus, Ottomans across Anatolia and Arabia.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion and reform: Islamic modernists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought synthesis of faith and reason; Christian minorities in Lebanon and Armenia fostered education and journalism.

• Literature and art: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) revived Arabic prose and poetry; Persian and Turkish writers blended realism with nationalism.

• Architecture: Cairo’s modern boulevards, Tehran’s avenues, and oil-era Gulf skylines redefined urban form while domed mosques and minarets remained emblems of continuity.

• Music and media: Radio and cinema from Cairo, Tehran, and Istanbul spread popular culture across linguistic and sectarian boundaries.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Desert agriculture expanded through artesian wells and canals; the introduction of cash crops like cotton in Egypt and tobacco in Iran restructured rural economies. Oases sustained date-palm and grain cultivation, while pastoralists adjusted routes to motor transport and border restrictions. In coastal cities, desalination and modern infrastructure emerged to offset water scarcity.

Political & Military Shocks

• Imperial decline and reform:

  • The Ottoman Empire weakened, culminating in its dissolution after World War I.

  • Egypt’s Muhammad Ali dynasty modernized administration and industry but fell under British occupation (1882).

  • Iran’s Qajar dynasty faced constitutional revolution (1905–11) and later Pahlavi modernization (from 1925).

• World Wars and mandates: British and French mandates carved up former Ottoman territories; Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Palestine emerged under European oversight.

• Nationalism and revolution:

  • Turkey’s Republic (1923) under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk secularized and industrialized Anatolia.

  • Arab nationalism surged—Nasser’s Egypt championed anti-imperial unity.

  • Iran underwent the 1951 oil nationalization crisis and the White Revolution (1963).

  • The Zionist movement culminated in the creation of Israel (1948) and successive Arab–Israeli wars (1948, 1956, 1967).

• Oil and Cold War: The discovery of major oil fields (Iran 1908; Iraq 1927; Saudi Arabia 1938; Kuwait 1938) made the region central to global power politics. U.S. and Soviet rivalry deepened through alliances and arms races.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Near and Middle East transformed from imperial provinces and desert sultanates into a mosaic of nation-states, revolutionary republics, and monarchies bound by oil and ideology. The collapse of Ottoman and colonial empires unleashed nationalist movements, while petroleum wealth and Cold War geopolitics redefined economies and alliances. In the deserts of Arabia and the deltas of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates, modernization coexisted with faith, and cities like Cairo, Tehran, and Riyadh became centers of a region poised between deep tradition and global transformation

The Middle East (1828–1971 CE): Qajar and Ottoman Struggles, Oil Empires, and Cold War Realignments

Geography & Environmental Context

The Middle East includes Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, most of Turkey (except its European and southwestern parts), eastern Jordan, nearly all of Lebanon, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman. Anchors include the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the Zagros and Caucasus ranges, the Iranian plateau, the Caspian littoral, the Levantine corridor, and the Persian/Arabian Gulf. This subregion connected Mediterranean, Russian, and Indian Ocean worlds while enduring pressures from empire, revolution, and global energy demand.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The waning Little Ice Age gave way to modern warming trends, but aridity remained dominant. The Fertile Crescent endured cycles of drought and flood, disrupting agriculture. The Caspian and Persian Gulf coasts supported fisheries and palm groves, while deserts of Iraq, Syria, and Arabia constrained settlement. Earthquakes (notably in Iran and Turkey) punctuated the landscape. After the mid-20th century, dams like the Aswan High Dam’s regional counterparts (e.g., Iran’s Karaj Dam, Turkey’s Keban project) sought to control rivers and support hydroelectricity.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture: Wheat, barley, and rice dominated in Mesopotamia and Iran’s plains; date groves thrived in Basra, Khuzestan, and Gulf oases. Tobacco, cotton, and citrus became key cash crops in Syria, Lebanon, and northern Iran.

• Pastoralism: Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes (Bedouin, Bakhtiari, Kurdish, Turkmen) persisted, though sedentarization campaigns curtailed mobility in the 20th century.

• Urbanization: Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Tehran, Tabriz, Aleppo, and Baku grew as administrative centers. Beirut blossomed as a Levantine port; Gulf towns like Manama, Doha, and Dubai remained small but were transformed by oil after the 1950s.

• Oil settlements: From the 1900s, Abadan, Kirkuk, Dhahran, and Bahrain became boomtowns linked to Anglo-Iranian and American oil companies.

Technology & Material Culture

• 19th century: Telegraph lines, railways (Berlin–Baghdad, Hejaz, Trans-Iranian), and steam navigation linked the region to Europe.

• 20th century: Oil refineries, pipelines (Kirkuk–Haifa, Abadan–Mediterranean), and dams modernized infrastructure. Cars, radios, and cinemas spread after WWII; by the 1960s, televisions and concrete apartment blocks reshaped urban life.

• Everyday life: Bazaar craft traditions—carpets, textiles, ceramics—coexisted with imported mass goods. Mosques, churches, and synagogues continued as architectural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Imperial routes: Russian expansion in the Caucasus (taking Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan) and British routes through the Gulf redefined boundaries.

• Trade: Caravans from Iran and Iraq moved wool, carpets, and livestock; steamships carried oil and pilgrims.

• Pilgrimage: Shiʿi shrines at Najaf and Karbala attracted millions; Sunni routes to Mecca drew eastern pilgrims via Basra and Gulf ports.

• Oil corridors: Tankers carried Gulf crude to Europe and Asia; pipelines bound Kirkuk and Abadan to Mediterranean ports.

• Diaspora & labor: Armenians, Assyrians, and Kurds migrated amid wars; Palestinian refugees after 1948 and 1967 transformed Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion: Islam predominated (Sunni in Anatolia, Syria, Iraq; Shiʿi in Iran, southern Iraq, eastern Arabia); Christian minorities (Armenian, Assyrian, Maronite, Greek Orthodox) and Jewish communities remained vital until large-scale emigration after 1948.

• Intellectual life: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) spread through Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad; Iranian reformers blended constitutionalism with Shiʿi thought.

• Arts & media: Persian poetry, Arabic novels, Turkish press, and Levantine theater flourished; postwar Egyptian cinema circulated regionally. Radio speeches—Nasser, Mossadegh, Baʿath leaders—became political rituals.

• Identity movements: Pan-Arabism, pan-Islamism, and early pan-Turkism shaped discourse. Kurdish nationalism emerged, while Zionist movements abroad affected regional politics through immigration to neighboring Palestine.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Irrigation: Canals in Iraq and Iran expanded, though salinization plagued Mesopotamian soils.

• Oases: Wells, qanats, and date-palm agroforestry sustained Gulf and Iranian plateau communities.

• Nomadic strategies: Seasonal migration and diversified herds buffered risk; modern states sought to sedentarize tribes, often disrupting resilience.

• Urban adaptation: Markets, hammams, and communal charities supported survival in famine and flood; post-WWII welfare states extended these functions through subsidies and public works.

Political & Military Shocks

• Ottoman decline & Russian advance: Russo-Persian wars led to treaties (Turkmenchay 1828) ceding Caucasian lands to Russia. Ottoman Syria and Iraq faced autonomy movements.

• Iran: The Qajar dynasty (1789–1925) managed concessions to Britain and Russia, sparking nationalist protest; the 1906 Constitutional Revolution curtailed monarchy briefly.

• Iraq: British occupied Mesopotamia in WWI; mandate rule (1920–32) preceded monarchy and eventual 1958 revolution.

• Syria & Lebanon: French mandate (1920–46); independence brought coups and eventual Baʿathist ascendancy.

• Turkey: Atatürk’s republic (1923) reformed Anatolia’s western and central regions, overlapping with this subregion’s borders in Adana and southeastern Turkey.

• Oil politics: 1901 D’Arcy concession (Iran), 1908 oil discovery at Masjed Soleyman, and formation of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later BP). Gulf sheikhdoms signed British treaties, setting the stage for independence in the 1960s–70s.

• Arab–Israeli conflict: Though Israel itself lies outside this subregion, wars of 1948 and 1967 deeply reshaped its neighbors—Jordan lost East Jerusalem, Syria lost the Golan, Lebanon absorbed refugees.

• Revolutions & coups: Egypt’s Free Officers inspired Iraq (1958) and Syria (1963); Iran’s Mossadegh nationalized oil (1951) before a 1953 coup restored the Shah.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Middle East was remade from Ottoman and Qajar borderlands into a set of oil-rich nation-states entangled in global power struggles. Early decades saw imperial encroachment, concessions, and mandates; the 20th century brought oil exploitation, nationalist revolts, and Cold War alignments. The rise of Baʿathism, Arab socialism, and pan-Islamic calls reshaped identity, while Gulf emirates edged toward independence under British withdrawal (1971). By the end of this period, pipelines, refineries, and revolutionary movements had replaced caravan and oasis rhythms, making the Middle East both the strategic heart of the Cold War and the stage for new conflicts over sovereignty, resources, and ideology.

The British, during the next hundred years, sign a series of treaties having wide-ranging provisions with other tribes in the gulf.

As a result, by the end of the First World War, leaders from Oman to Iraq have essentially yielded control of their foreign relations to Britain.

Abu Dhabi enters into arrangements similar to those of Dubai and Bahrain in 1835, Kuwait in 1899, and Qatar in 1916.

The treaty whose terms convey the most representative sense of the relationship between Britain and the gulf states is the Exclusive Agreement of 1882.

This text specified that the signatory gulf states (members of the present-day UAE) cannot make any international agreements or host any foreign agent without British consent.

Gulf leaders, because of their concessions to the UK, accept the need for Britain to protect them from their more powerful neighbors.

The main threat comes from the Al Saud in central Arabia.

Although the Ottomans had defeated the first Wahhabi empire of the Al Saud around 1820, the family rises up again about thirty years later; it threatens not only the Al Qasimi, who by this time have largely abandoned Wahhabi Islam, but also the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Ibadi sultan in Oman.

The Al Saud also threaten Qatar in the early 1900s, despite that country's Wahhabi rulers.

Only with British assistance can the Al Thani and other area rulers retain their authority.

The Al Saud are not the only threat to the Trucial States.

Despite its treaty agreement with Britain, Bahrain on several occasions claims Qatar because of the Al Khalifa involvement on the peninsula.

The Omanis and Iranians have also claimed Bahrain because both have held the island at various times.

Furthermore, the Ottomans claim Bahrain occasionally and try throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century to establish their authority in Kuwait and Qatar.

The British wish to maintain security on the route from Europe to India so that merchants can safely send goods between India and the gulf.

Britain also seeks to exclude the influence in the area of other powers, such as the Ottoman Empire and France.

East-West trade through the Persian Gulf dries up in the nineteenth century after the opening of the Suez Canal, which provides an all-water route to the Mediterranean Sea.

Gulf merchants continue to earn substantial income from the slave trade, but international pressure, mostly from Britain, forces them to abandon this by 1900.

Hereafter, the region continues to profit from the gulf pearl beds, but this industry declines in the 1930s as a result of the world depression, which reduces demand, and as a result of the Japanese development of a cheaper way to "breed" pearls, or make cultured pearls.

The Middle East: 1840–1851 CE

Ottoman Restoration and Egyptian Retreat

The era beginning in 1840 witnesses the restoration of direct Ottoman rule in Syria and Lebanon, following Egyptian withdrawal. The Convention of London (1840) decisively ends the Egyptian occupation, compelling Muhammad Ali Pasha to relinquish his Syrian territories back to the Ottomans while securing hereditary rule over Egypt for his family. Ottoman authorities, aiming to reestablish stability and control, initiate administrative reforms known as the Tanzimat, introducing structured taxation systems and limited modernization in the provinces. However, these reforms face resistance from local elites accustomed to greater autonomy, particularly in Syria and Mount Lebanon.

In Mount Lebanon, Bashir II Shihab pays a heavy price for his earlier allegiance to Egypt. After Egyptian withdrawal, he is deposed in 1840 and exiled, leading to political instability exacerbated by sectarian tensions among Maronites, Druze, and Muslims. Bashir III is appointed amir of Mount Lebanon on September 3, 1840, but bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes quickly resurface under his rule. These tensions result in Bashir III's deposition on January 13, 1842, replaced by Ottoman governor Umar Pasha. To ease tensions, the Ottoman sultan partitions Lebanon into two districts under separate Christian and Druze deputy governors, known as the Double Qaimaqamate. However, this partition only deepens sectarian animosities, occasionally erupting into violence, notably in May 1845. The European powers intervene, prompting the Ottomans to establish advisory councils (majlis) representing the different religious communities.

Saudi Arabia: Turmoil and British Influence

In Arabia, the Al Saud dynasty under Faisal ibn Turki Al Saud faces intense internal strife following the assassination of his father, Turki ibn Abd Allah, in 1834. Faisal consolidates control from Riyadh by 1843 after nearly a decade of internecine warfare. During this period, Ottoman forces briefly occupy eastern Arabian territories, including Al Qatif and Al Hufuf, exploiting internal Saudi divisions.

Faisal’s reign balances relations with the Ottoman Empire and emerging British interests. Britain's strategic concern over the Persian Gulf, due to trade routes and protection of India, increasingly influences Arabian politics. The British East India Company establishes treaty relations with several Gulf emirates, intensifying British presence and shaping regional political developments. The Al Saud leverage their Wahhabi influence to maintain control over central Arabia, though their influence in the Hijaz remains limited due to Ottoman and Egyptian vigilance.

Persian Decline and Increased Foreign Intervention

In Persia, the Qajar Dynasty struggles with internal instability and external pressures following significant territorial losses to Russia. The aftermath of the Treaty of Turkmanchay (1828) leaves Persia economically and politically weakened, prompting increasing British and Russian interference—the rivalry known as "The Great Game."

Under Mohammad Shah Qajar (1834–1848), central authority erodes, leading to regional uprisings and increased autonomy of tribal leaders. Upon the accession of Naser ad-Din Shah in 1848, his prime minister, Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir, initiates reforms aimed at strengthening central authority, modernizing taxation, encouraging trade and industry, and establishing the Dar ol Fonun school for elites. However, jealousy and political intrigue lead to Amir Kabir's dismissal and execution in 1851, symbolizing the persistent internal weaknesses that allow further foreign intervention.

Oman's Maritime and Diplomatic Expansion

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi expands Oman's maritime trade, enhancing economic prosperity and international prestige. His rule is characterized by commercial diplomacy, maintaining favorable relations with Britain. Oman's East African territories, particularly Zanzibar, become major trade hubs for spices, ivory, and slaves, solidifying Oman's strategic importance to British interests in securing maritime routes between Europe and India.

Tribal Dynamics in the Gulf and the Rise of Qatar

The Al Thani clan firmly establishes itself in Qatar, asserting independence from the Al Khalifa of Bahrain and resisting external domination attempts. The ideological alignment of the Al Thani with Wahhabism continues distinguishing Qatar politically and religiously from neighboring emirates.

In Abu Dhabi, the Al Nahyan family consolidates power, leveraging alliances with Oman and Britain to secure their territorial claims. The Bani Yas tribe’s alignment further stabilizes Abu Dhabi, ensuring its growth as a regional power.

Russian Consolidation and Cultural Transformation in the Caucasus

The Russian Empire consolidates administrative control over Georgia and northern Azerbaijan, systematically introducing Russian legal, administrative, and educational reforms. Tsar Alexander I had abolished the kingdom of Kartli-Kakhetia in 1801, integrating eastern Georgia and subsequently western Georgia by 1804. Russian rule significantly transforms local societies, fostering a new educated elite influenced by Russian culture and governance. Armenian national consciousness intensifies as Armenians from Russia and former Persian provinces come under unified tsarist administration.

Russia's victory over Persia in 1828 and annexation of the area around Erevan brings thousands of Armenians into the Russian Empire, integrating them within a single legal and administrative framework. The Armenian community benefits from relative peace and economic growth under Russian rule, significantly ending previous isolation.

Legacy of the Era

From 1840 to 1851, the Middle East witnesses major geopolitical reconfigurations marked by Ottoman restoration, Persian decline, and increased British and Russian intervention. The reshaping of state structures, tribal dynamics, and communal identities during this period establishes enduring political frameworks and sectarian divisions, profoundly impacting regional politics and society into the modern era.

Shaikh Ali bin Khalifa Al-Khalifa captures the fort and town of Riffa, the second largest  in the Emirate of Bahrain, in February 1843, after the rival branch of the family fails to gain control of the Riffa Fort and flees to Manama.

Shaikh Mohamed bin Ahmed is killed at the battle, called the Battle of Hunayniya.