Tewodros's first task is to bring Shewa under his control.

During the Era of the Princes, Shewa has been, even more than most provinces, an independent entity, its ruler even styling himself negus.

In the course of subduing the Shewans, Tewodros imprisons a Shewan prince, Menelik, who will later become emperor himself.

Despite his success against Shewa, Tewodros faces constant rebellions in other provinces.

In the first six years of his reign, the new ruler manages to put down these rebellions, and the empire is relatively peaceful from about 1861 to 1863.

The energy, wealth, and manpower necessary to deal with regional opposition, however, limits the scope of Tewodros's other activities.

Tewodros II' s origins are in the Era of the Princes, but his ambitions are not those of the regional nobility.

He seeks to reestablish a cohesive Ethiopian state and to reform its administration and church.

He does not initially claim Solomonic lineage but does seek to restore Solomonic hegemony, and he considers himself the "Elect of God."

Later in his reign, suspecting that foreigners consider him an upstart and seeking to legitimize his reign, he adds "son of David and Solomon" to his title.

Other rebels have emerged in Ethiopia by 1865, including Menelik, who has escaped from prison and returned to Shewa, where he declares himself negus.

The kingdom at Tewodros's death is disorganized, but those contending to succeed him are not prepared to return to the Zemene Mesafint system.

One of them, crowned Tekla Giorgis, takes over the central part of the highlands.

Another, Kasa Mercha, governor of Tigray, declines when offered the title of ras in exchange for recognizing Tekla Giorgis.

The third, Menelik of Shewa, comes to terms with Tekla Giorgis in return for a promise to respect Shewa's independence.

Tekla Giorgis, however, seeks to bring Kasa Mercha under his rule but is defeated by a small Tigrayan army equipped with more modern weapons than those possessed by his Gonder forces.

In 1872 Kasa Mercha is crowned negusa nagast in a ceremony at the ancient capital of Aksum, taking the throne name of Johannes IV.

Tewodros had never realized his dream of restoring a strong monarchy, although he had taken some important initial steps.

He sought to establish the principle that governors and judges must be salaried appointees.

He also had established a professional standing army, rather than depending on local lords to provide soldiers for his expeditions.

He had also intended to reform the church, believing the clergy to be ignorant and immoral, but he was confronted by strong opposition when he tried to impose a tax on church lands to help finance government activities.

His confiscation of these lands had gained him enemies in the church and little support elsewhere.

Essentially, Tewodros was a talented military campaigner but a poor politician.

Tewodros encounters difficulties with the European powers in addition to his conflicts with rebels and rivals.

Seeking aid from the British government (he proposes a joint expedition to conquer Jerusalem), he becomes unhappy with the behavior of those Britons whom he had counted on to advance his request, and he takes them hostage.

In 1868, as a British expeditionary force sent from India to secure release of the hostages storms his stronghold, Tewodros commits suicide.

Johannes has to meet attacks from Egyptian forces on three fronts in 1875.

The khedive in Egypt envisions a "Greater Egypt" that will encompass Ethiopia.

In pursuit of this goal, an Egyptian force moves inland from present-day Djibouti but is annihilated by Afar tribesmen.

Other Egyptian forces occupy Harer, where they will remain for nearly ten years, long after the Egyptian cause had been lost.

Tigrayan warriors defeat a more ambitious attack launched from the coastal city of Mitsiwa in which the Egyptian forces are almost completely destroyed.

A fourth Egyptian army will be decisively defeated in 1876 southwest of Mitsiwa.

Political developments transform the Somali Peninsula in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

During this period, the Somalis become the subjects of state systems under the flags of Britain, France, Italy, Egypt, and Ethiopia.

The new rulers have various motives for colonization.

Britain seeks to gain control of the northern Somali coast as a source of mutton and other livestock products for its naval port of Aden in present-day Yemen.

As a result of the growing importance of the Red Sea to British operations in the East, Aden is regarded as indispensable to the defense of British India.

British occupation of the northern Somali coast begins in earnest in February 1884, when Major A. Hunter arrives at Berbera to negotiate treaties of friendship and protection with numerous Somali clans.

Hunter arranges to have British vice consuls installed in Berbera, Bullaxaar, and Saylac.

The French, having been evicted from Egypt by the British, wish to establish a coaling station on the Red Sea coast to strengthen naval links with their Indochina colonies.

The French are also eager to bisect Britain's vaunted Cairo to Cape Town zone of influence with an east to west expansion across Africa.

France extends its foothold on the Afar coast partly to counter the high duties that the British authorities impose on French goods in Obock.

A French protectorate is proclaimed under the governorship of Leonce Lagarde, who plays a prominent role in extending French influence into the Horn of Africa.

Italy is the next source of danger to Ethiopia.

The Italian government takes over the port of Aseb in 1882 from the Rubattino Shipping Company, which had purchased it from a local ruler some years before.

Italy's main interest is not the port but the eventual colonization of Ethiopia.

In the process, the Italians enter into a long-term relationship with Menelik.

The main Italian drive is begun in 1885 from Mitsiwa, which Italy had occupied.

From this port, the Italians begin to penetrate the hinterland, with British encouragement.

In 1887, after the Italians are soundly defeated at Dogali by Ras Alula, the governor of northeastern Tigray, they send a stronger force into the area.