Philip II’s Rule Over Portugal and the Rise of Sebastianism (1580–1640)

When Philip II of Spain was declared King of Portugal in 1580, he sought to integrate Portugal into the Iberian Union while maintaining some degree of autonomy to placate the Portuguese elite. However, while the nobility largely accepted Spanish rule, a messianic movement known as Sebastianism (Sebastianismo) took hold in the countryside, reflecting Portuguese resistance to Castilian domination.

Philip II’s Policies Toward Portugal

To govern Portugal while maintaining its distinct identity, Philip II:

• Created a six-member Portuguese council to oversee administration.
• Ensured that the Portuguese Cortes (parliament) met only in Portugal.
• Preserved Portuguese institutions, keeping all civil, military, and ecclesiastical appointments Portuguese.
• Guaranteed autonomy in language, judicial system, coinage, and military.

Despite these assurances of autonomy, Portugal became increasingly subordinated to Spanish interests, particularly in foreign policy and colonial affairs.

Strengthening the Inquisition and Jesuit Influence

Philip II relied on the Jesuits and the Portuguese Inquisition to maintain control, as both institutions promoted Habsburg loyalty and religious orthodoxy.

• The Inquisition intensified persecution of New Christians (conversos, or Jews forcibly converted to Christianity), as Philip sought to align Portugal’s religious policies with Spain’s rigid Catholic orthodoxy.
• The Jesuits, who played a central role in Portuguese education and missionary efforts, were favored by Philip for their Iberian-wide influence and religious discipline.

This led to greater repression of religious minorities, exacerbating tensions within Portugal and its colonies.

Portuguese Cultural and Political Integration with Spain

• By the late 16th century, the Portuguese royal court had adopted Castilian language and etiquette.
• Many Portuguese intellectuals and writers produced works in Castilian Spanish, seeing themselves as part of a shared Iberian culture.
• While the Portuguese elite largely accepted Spanish rule, rural Portugal resisted assimilation, leading to the rise of Sebastianism.

Sebastianism: The Myth of the Hidden King and National Resistance

• Sebastianism (Sebastianismo) emerged from the belief that King Sebastião (who disappeared at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578) had not died but would return to free Portugal from Spanish rule.
• This messianic cult became deeply rooted in Portuguese society, particularly in the countryside and among the lower classes.
• Over the years, several impostors claiming to be King Sebastião appeared, leading to small-scale rebellions, but all were easily suppressed.

Long-Term Impact of Sebastianism

• Sebastianism became a lasting element of Portuguese identity, symbolizing:
  • A nostalgic longing for lost national glory.
  • Resistance to foreign rule.
  • The hope for a miraculous national restoration.
• Even after Portugal regained independence in 1640, Sebastianism persisted as a cultural and psychological phenomenon, influencing Portuguese literature, folklore, and political thought.

Conclusion: A Fragile Union and Enduring National Identity

Philip II’s incorporation of Portugal into the Iberian Union (1580–1640) was met with noble acquiescence but popular resistance. While Portugal retained some degree of autonomy, the increasing influence of Spanish policies and institutions fueled resentment.

The rise of Sebastianism reflected Portugal’s deep desire for independence, a longing that would eventually culminate in the Portuguese Restoration War (1640), leading to the end of Spanish rule and the restoration of the House of Braganza. Even today, Sebastianism remains a powerful cultural symbol in Portugal, embodying a national longing for an unattainable past.