The Chimei win a great victory against both Deng and Feng at Hu (in modern Sanmenxia, Henan) in spring 27—a rarity in the records regarding them in that the battle tactics demonstrating Chimei generals' brilliance are recorded in historical accounts.

The Chimei general engages in the tactic of feigning defeat and retreat—abandoning what appeared to be supplies of food.

Deng's forces, also hungry, try to take the food, which turns out to only contain one layer of beans with dirt underneath.

Having lured Deng's forces into a condition of panic, the Chimei forces then converge, defeating their foes.

The Chimei generals and their families are settled in the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang and given regular stipends and land, but not official positions.

Eventually, Fan and Pang prepare to rebel again, and they are discovered and executed.

Yang and Xu return to their home lands, where they will die of old age.

Xie is assassinated by Liu Gong to avenge Emperor Gengshi, and Liu Xiu, sympathetic to Liu Gong, pardons him.

Liu Xiu makes the former Emperor Penzi an assistant to his uncle Liu Liang, the Prince of Zhao.

Liu Penzi will later suffer an illness that will leave him blind, and Liu Xiu will give him a large swarth of farmland, allowing him to survive on the rent from the farms.

The Trung sisters, whose names are Trung Trac and Trung Nh, are Vietnamese military leaders who rebel against Chinese rule in 39.

Regarded as national heroines of Vietnam, their rebellion begins at the Red River Delta, but soon spreads to other Yue tribes along the coast to the north and south.

A Thracian settlement called Serdica or Sardica, named after the Celtic tribe Serdi that had populated it, had been possessed for a short period during the fourth century BCE by Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great.

The city is conquered by the Romans around 29 BCE and renamed Ulpia Serdica.

The Middle East: 28–39 CE

Parthian Struggles and Roman Diplomacy

During the period from 28 to 39 CE, tensions within the Parthian Empire continue to challenge regional stability. Artabanus II, initially successful in consolidating authority, now faces intense internal opposition driven by powerful Parthian aristocratic factions increasingly dissatisfied with his centralization efforts and assertive foreign policy.

In 35 CE, discontent among these elites culminates in open rebellion, prompting some Parthian nobles to seek assistance from Rome. Seizing this diplomatic opportunity, Roman authorities under Emperor Tiberius actively encourage instability by supporting rival claimants to the Parthian throne, notably backing Tiridates III, a Parthian prince with significant Roman connections. Roman support for Tiridates culminates in his temporary installation as a rival king in 36 CE, forcing Artabanus II into exile among eastern nomadic tribes.

However, Artabanus swiftly regroups, leveraging tribal alliances to mount a successful counteroffensive. By 37 CE, he regains control over Ctesiphon, expelling Tiridates and restoring his authority. Understanding the limits of Roman intervention, Emperor Caligula, who succeeds Tiberius in 37 CE, chooses not to pursue aggressive confrontation, instead accepting Artabanus’s reinstatement and renewing diplomatic relations.

Simultaneously, Rome carefully manages the delicate political situation in Armenia, maintaining the kingdom as a crucial buffer state and preserving influence through client kings and strategic diplomacy. The Roman-Parthian rivalry thus remains largely unresolved, characterized by intermittent proxy conflicts, strategic maneuvering, and cautious diplomacy, shaping the region’s ongoing balance of power.

The Middle East: 40–51 CE

Parthian Rivalries and Roman Regional Strategies

Between 40 and 51 CE, the Parthian Empire again descends into internal strife, exacerbated by external Roman intervention. In 40 CE, Emperor Caligula dispatches forces to strengthen Rome's grip over client states and indirectly assert influence over Armenia. His assassination in 41 CE and the accession of Claudius usher in a pragmatic shift in Roman eastern policy, characterized by strategic restraint and careful diplomacy rather than overt military campaigns.

Parthia’s Artabanus II dies around 38 CE, leading to further instability. His successor, Vardanes I, ascends the throne but faces immediate opposition from his brother, Gotarzes II, sparking a destructive civil war. Throughout the early 40s CE, the two brothers engage in intermittent conflicts, with Vardanes briefly securing dominance before his assassination in 45 CE. Gotarzes II regains power but continues to contend with widespread aristocratic unrest and regional rebellions.

Seizing upon Parthian disarray, Rome employs diplomatic maneuvers, indirectly supporting rival claimants to maintain Parthian internal divisions while preserving a manageable frontier. In 49 CE, the Parthian nobility invites Meherdates, a hostage prince raised in Rome, to challenge Gotarzes. Meherdates, however, suffers defeat, securing Gotarzes' tenuous rule until his death in 51 CE.

Amid these conflicts, Rome consistently focuses its influence on Armenia, which remains pivotal to regional stability. The kingdom alternates between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian rulers, reflecting the ongoing, careful diplomatic tug-of-war. Thus, by 51 CE, the Middle East continues as a theater of indirect conflict, shaped by Parthian dynastic rivalries and Rome’s strategic emphasis on diplomatic intervention rather than outright conquest.

The last of four books of the “Maccabees,” largely a philosophical discussion of the primacy of reason, governed by religious laws, over passion, is composed originally in the Greek language, in a manner that Stephen Westerholm of the Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible calls "very fluently... and in a highly rhetorical and affected Greek style."

It is not in the Bible for most churches, but is an appendix to the Greek Bible, and in the canon of the Georgian Bible.

It was in the 1688 Romanian Bible where it was called "Iosip" but is not printed in the Orthodox Bible today.

According to some scholars, the last chapter shows signs of later addition to the work, though this was disputed by the nineteenth century authors of the Jewish Encyclopedia.

The dispute is based on the weak ending the book would have without the "added" chapter, as well as arguments based on style.

The change of direction with chapter 27 supports the view of the work as a homily held before a Greek-speaking audience on the feast of Hanukkah, as advanced by Ewald and Freudenthal, where this would be a rhetorical element to draw the listeners into the discourse.

Others hold that a homily would have to be based on scriptural texts, which this work is only loosely.

The writer believes in the immortality of the soul, but never mentions the resurrection of the dead.

Good souls are said to live forever in happiness with the patriarchs and God, but even the evil souls are held to be immortal.

The suffering and martyrdom of the Maccabees is seen by the author to be vicarious for the Jewish nation, and the author portrays martyrdom in general as bringing atonement for the past sins of the Jews The book is oratorical in style, but not so much as 3 Maccabees.

The writer appears to be an Alexandrian Jew who used a philosophical approach in order to present a concept of piety.

The author cites what can be interpreted as Stoic philosophy, though there is little original philosophical insight in the text.

Regarded as Jewish literature, it is cited as the best example of syncretism between Jewish and Hellenistic thought.

The book is ascribed to Josephus by Eusebius and Jerome, and this opinion was accepted for many years, leading to its inclusion in many editions of Josephus' works.

Scholars have however pointed to perceived differences of language and style.

The book is generally dated between the first century BCE and the first century CE, due to its reliance on 2 Maccabees and use by some of the early Christians.

It has been suggested that it was written before the persecution of the Jews under Caligula, or before the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (28–39 CE): Turmoil under Tiberius and Caligula’s Ascension

The era 28–39 CE is marked by significant political upheaval, characterized by the downfall of Sejanus, the increasingly reclusive governance of Tiberius, and the turbulent rise of Caligula, setting the stage for profound changes in Roman leadership and stability.

Downfall of Sejanus and Political Turmoil

In 31 CE, Lucius Aelius Sejanus, whose influence had significantly shaped imperial policies, dramatically falls from power. Accused of treasonous plots against Emperor Tiberius, Sejanus is executed along with numerous allies and family members. His abrupt downfall creates a climate of fear and suspicion, profoundly destabilizing Rome’s political elite.

Reclusive Rule of Tiberius

Following the demise of Sejanus, Tiberius becomes increasingly withdrawn, governing Rome from isolation on the island of Capri. His seclusion contributes to growing uncertainty and instability in Roman political life, as communication with the emperor becomes difficult, leading to greater reliance on intermediaries and bureaucratic officials.

Tiberius’s remote governance style exacerbates tensions within the Senate and among the Roman populace, who perceive his absence as neglectful and suspicious.

Economic Stability and Provincial Administration

Despite political instability in Rome, the provinces—including Mediterranean Southwest Europe—continue to experience relative economic stability and administrative continuity. Tiberius’s careful financial management and established bureaucratic structures help sustain the prosperity and functionality of Roman territories.

Caligula’s Succession and Initial Popularity

In 37 CE, following the death of Tiberius, Caligula, the son of the popular general Germanicus and great-nephew of Tiberius, ascends to power. Initially, Caligula’s accession is met with widespread enthusiasm among the Roman populace, hopeful that he will restore transparency and vitality to imperial leadership after the isolation and suspicion of Tiberius’s later reign.

Early Reign of Caligula and Public Works

Caligula initially embarks on public works projects, generous spending, and measures aimed at regaining popular favor and restoring a more visible imperial presence. His actions reflect a conscious effort to contrast his governance with the withdrawn and unpopular final years of Tiberius.

However, Caligula’s promising start quickly deteriorates into erratic and increasingly autocratic behavior, undermining initial optimism and generating widespread discontent and fear within Roman society and its political establishment.

Cultural and Social Developments

Cultural activities continue during this turbulent era, with ongoing literary, artistic, and architectural endeavors reflecting both continuity and reactions to political instability. Roman culture remains vibrant yet increasingly reflective of underlying societal anxieties and uncertainties brought about by erratic imperial leadership.

Legacy of the Era

The period 28–39 CE dramatically illustrates the vulnerabilities inherent in Rome’s imperial succession and governance. The profound impact of Sejanus’s downfall, Tiberius’s reclusive final years, and Caligula’s turbulent rise to power underscores the fragile nature of imperial stability and sets the stage for continued volatility in Roman leadership.

North Africa (28–39 CE)

Roman Governance, Mauretanian Reorganization, Cyrenaic Prosperity, Berber Stability, and Saharan Networks

Roman Provincial Expansion and Economic Development

From 28 to 39 CE, Rome further enhances administrative control and economic integration within Africa Proconsularis. Continued improvements in infrastructure, agriculture, and urban development strengthen provincial prosperity. Urban centers, particularly Utica, remain significant commercial and administrative hubs, deeply woven into Rome’s vast Mediterranean economic network.

During this period, Leptis Magna, founded originally by Phoenician colonists around 1100 BCE and historically known by its Lybico-Berber name Lpqy, becomes formally incorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor Tiberius. Although nominally under Carthaginian control until the end of the Third Punic War (146 BCE) and largely independent afterward, Leptis Magna now emerges as one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major Mediterranean trading center.

Numidia: Continued Economic Stability and Provincial Integration

Numidia remains stable and prosperous under consistent Roman governance. Benefiting from enhanced agricultural practices and improved trade networks, the province continues contributing robustly to regional economic vitality. Local traditions persist alongside Roman administrative structures, maintaining Numidia’s cultural uniqueness within the broader Roman provincial framework.

Mauretania: Administrative Reorganization and Continued Growth

Following the transitional period after the deaths of King Juba II and Queen Cleopatra Selene II, Mauretania undergoes significant administrative reorganization. Rome increasingly exerts direct influence, refining local governance structures. Caesarea (modern Cherchell) continues thriving culturally and economically, benefiting from extensive Roman-led infrastructure projects and strategic Mediterranean trade. The province sustains its economic prominence through robust commerce in grain, olive oil, and luxury goods, maintaining its essential role within the Roman economic system.

Cyrenaica: Sustained Economic Prosperity and Cultural Vitality

Cyrenaica continues its longstanding economic and intellectual vitality. The Greek Pentapolis—Cyrene, Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—maintains robust trade, particularly in grain, wine, wool, livestock, and the highly prized medicinal herb Silphium. Cyrene remains an influential cultural and academic center, attracting renowned scholars, philosophers, and medical professionals from across the Mediterranean.

Berber Communities: Ongoing Economic Integration and Cultural Resilience

Berber communities persist in active economic participation, especially through dynamic coastal trade hubs like Oea (Tripoli). Inland Berber tribes continue benefiting from vibrant coastal economic activities, retaining traditional governance structures and cultural practices. This ongoing interaction ensures regional economic stability, cultural continuity, and resilience.

Garamantes: Sustained Saharan Connectivity and Commerce

The Garamantes remain pivotal to trans-Saharan trade, effectively linking sub-Saharan Africa with Mediterranean economies. Their sophisticated agricultural methods and careful management of trade routes ensure continued regional prosperity, facilitating vibrant economic and cultural exchanges across vast Saharan territories.

Mauri (Moors) and Saharan Pastoral Nomads

The Mauri (Moors) sustain their influential regional role through diplomatic engagements and vibrant economic activities, ensuring continued stability and prosperity in western North Africa.

Saharan pastoral nomads continue facilitating essential economic, cultural, and informational exchanges between varied ecological and economic regions, further reinforcing regional interconnectedness.

Cultural Syncretism and Dynamic Exchange

Cultural interactions among Berber, Roman, Greek, Garamantian, Mauri, and Saharan pastoral populations continue enriching regional arts, crafts, and traditions. Religious syncretism remains robust, blending indigenous Berber practices with Roman, Greek, Phoenician, and Saharan customs, significantly enhancing North Africa’s diverse cultural landscape.

Foundations for Continued Regional Stability and Prosperity

By 39 CE, North Africa exhibits sustained regional stability and prosperity, driven by robust Roman provincial administration, successful Mauretanian reorganization, sustained Cyrenaic economic and intellectual vitality, resilient Berber communities, and dynamic Saharan trade networks. Collectively, these integrated elements affirm North Africa’s strategic importance within the broader Mediterranean geopolitical landscape.

The city of Leptis Magna appears to have been founded by Phoenician colonists sometime around 1100 BCE, who gave it the Lybico-Berber name Lpqy.

The town had not achieved prominence until Carthage became a major power in the Mediterranean Sea in the fourth century BCE.

It had nominally remained part of Carthage's dominions until the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BCE and then became part of the Roman Republic, although from about 200 BCE onward, it has for all intents and purposes been an independent city, and has remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area are formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa.

It soon becomes one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post.