Atilla makes his second great attack on the Eastern Roman Empire in 447, but little is known of the details of the campaign.

Planned on an even bigger scale than that of 441-443, it invades the Balkans as far as Thermopylae but its main weight is directed toward the provinces of Lower Scythia and Moesia in southeastern Europe—i.e., farther to the east than the earlier assault.

He engages the Eastern Empire's forces on the Utus (Vid) River and defeats them but suffers serious losses.

During the invasion, Serdica (modern Sofia) is destroyed.

Attila forces Theodosius to cede large areas of territory south of the Danube to the Huns, and for disobeying the terms of the treaty made since 442, Attila triples his demand for tribute to twenty-one hundred pounds (about seven hundred kilograms) of gold per year; the ransom for each Roman prisoner to twelve solidi.

Aerobindus, sent along with other generals against Attila in 443, had been defeated by the king of the Huns.

In 447, he receives the title of patricius.

An earthquake on January 27, 447, destroys large parts of the walls of Constantinople, including fifty-seven towers.

The population is threatened by a plague.

Theodosius orders Constantine, praetorian prefect of the East, to supervise the repairs.

He employs the city's demoi—factions in the Hippodrome—in the work and rebuilds the walls within sixty days.

Theodosius removes Aspar and Areobindus (magister militum) from their military commands in the winter of this year.

Bishop Germanus of Auxerre, during a possible second trip to Britain in 447, is said to have led British troops to victory over the invading Saxons and Picts.

This second visit is contested by some scholars, who suggest it may be a 'doublet' or variant version of the visit that has been mistaken as describing a different visit and erroneously included as such by Constantius, according to whom Germanus was joined by Severus, Bishop of Trier and met Elafius, described by Bede as 'a chief of that region'.

Germanus is said to have cured Elafius' enfeebled son by a miracle that served to persuade the population that Gaulish Catholicism rather than Pelagianism was the true faith.

Hawaiʻiloa, a Polynesian chief, is said to have discovered what will be called the Hawaiian Islands, according to one legend, sailing across twenty-four hundred miles of open water from the island of Raiatea, near Tahiti.

He settles on Hawaii, named in his honor.

The story of Hawaiʻiloa is attested, however, only by such late sources as the antiquarians Abraham Fornander and Thomas George Thrum.

As they did not give their original Hawaiian sources, but only digests and compilations, we cannot be sure that the tale has not been slanted towards proof of Fornander's now discredited migration theories, or that it has not been elaborated by nineteenth-century Hawaiians eager to stress the validity of their own beliefs.

Hawaiʻiloa is not mentioned in early Hawaiian sources like David Malo or Samuel Kamakau.

Malo says that there are many stories of the origin of the Hawaiians, and cites some migration tales, some legends of indigenous origin.

He does not mention Hawaiʻiloa.

Kamakau says that the first man and woman were Hulihonua and Keakahuilani, and that they were created on Oʻahu.

The Widespread Adoption of Metal Horseshoes

By the mid-fifth century, the use of metal horseshoes becomes increasingly widespread across the Near East, Middle East, and Europe, revolutionizing agriculture, transportation, and warfare. While earlier civilizations had used rawhide or bronze hoof coverings, the more advanced nailed iron horseshoe provides significant advantages in traction, durability, and hoof protection, allowing horses to be used more effectively across varied terrains.

Impact on Agriculture and Trade

• Improved Traction – Horses equipped with iron horseshoes can more easily navigate muddy, rocky, and uneven ground, making them more reliable for plowing fields and hauling goods.
• Enhanced Durability – The protection offered by metal horseshoes extends the working life of horses, reducing injuries and making them a more valuable agricultural asset.
• Expansion of Trade Routes – As horses become better suited for long-distance travel, merchants and caravans benefit from greater efficiency in overland trade, strengthening economic networks across Europe and the Middle East.

Military Advancements

• Greater Mobility – Armies using horses for scouting, cavalry charges, and mounted archery see improved performance on diverse terrains, from marshy lowlands to mountainous regions.
• Increased Horse Longevity – With better hoof protection, cavalry units maintain their horses in better condition, reducing the need for constant replacements.
• Strategic Flexibility – Horseshoes contribute to the rise of heavily armored cavalry, paving the way for the later dominance of knights and cataphracts in medieval warfare.

A Lasting Innovation

The widespread adoption of metal horseshoes marks a crucial technological shift, supporting economic growth, agricultural efficiency, and military effectiveness. This innovation will continue to shape transportation and warfare throughout the medieval period, playing a foundational role in the expansion of medieval societies across Eurasia.

East Central Europe (448–459 CE): Attila’s Campaigns, Hunnic Collapse, and Regional Realignments

Between 448 and 459 CE, East Central Europe—including Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced profound transformations triggered by Attila the Hun’s ambitious campaigns against the Western Roman Empire and the subsequent rapid collapse of Hunnic authority after his death in 453 CE. The sudden vacuum of power led to extensive regional realignments, the resurgence of tribal independence, and renewed instability along the Roman frontier. Amid these dramatic shifts, the Rugii skillfully maintained their stability along the upper Tisza, while the proto-Slavic communities continued to display notable resilience, preserving their traditional social and cultural cohesion.

Political and Military Developments

Attila’s Western Campaigns and Death (453 CE)

• Attila’s aggressive western campaigns—including his invasions of Gaul (451 CE) and Italy (452 CE)—marked the peak of his expansive ambitions, briefly projecting Hunnic power far beyond East Central Europe.

• Attila’s sudden death in 453 CE precipitated rapid internal fragmentation among the Huns, resulting in the swift dissolution of their unified power and leaving a significant political vacuum across the region.

Fragmentation of Hunnic Empire and Regional Instability

• Following Attila’s demise, internal divisions led to a rapid fragmentation of Hunnic dominance. Various Germanic and tribal groups, previously subjugated or allied with the Huns, reasserted their autonomy, sparking extensive regional realignments and renewed conflicts.

• The collapse intensified instability in Roman provinces along the Danube, as former Hunnic territories descended into competing tribal factions.

Rugian Stability Amidst Turmoil

• The Rugii, strategically positioned along the upper Tisza, leveraged their diplomatic acumen to retain stability and regional influence, successfully navigating the chaotic aftermath of Attila’s death.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Fragmentation and Localized Adaptation

• With the breakdown of Hunnic authority and regional order, economic structures further fragmented into localized agricultural production, pastoralism, and village-based trade networks.

Infrastructure Neglect and Further Decay

• Roman-built infrastructure and fortifications deteriorated significantly amid the rapid regional destabilization, with little investment in repair or improvement due to persistent uncertainty and lack of central governance.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Shifts in Cultural Influence

• The collapse of centralized Hunnic control allowed local cultural identities to reassert themselves, albeit reflecting significant hybridization from previous decades. Artifacts from this era—metalwork, pottery, jewelry—continued to show Hunnic stylistic influence blended with revived Germanic and Roman traditions.

Proto-Slavic Cultural Continuity

• Proto-Slavic populations maintained their cohesive cultural and social structures, largely unaffected by broader regional upheavals, underscoring their enduring resilience and stability.

Settlement and Urban Development

Continuing Decline of Roman Settlements

• Roman frontier settlements (Carnuntum, Vindobona, Aquincum) remained severely diminished, surviving primarily as small-scale military outposts and local trade hubs amid broader regional disorder.

Stable Rugian Communities

• Rugian settlements continued to thrive along the upper Tisza region, maintaining their local economic strength and strategic significance through diplomatic neutrality and adaptive governance.

Social and Religious Developments

Rugian Leadership Diplomacy

• Rugian tribal leaders maintained their autonomy and internal cohesion through careful diplomacy, successfully managing relationships with surrounding tribal factions, Roman remnants, and emerging post-Hunnic powers.

Proto-Slavic Social Resilience

• Proto-Slavic communities continued their stable social hierarchies and traditional religious practices, maintaining internal coherence despite the external instability accompanying the Hunnic collapse.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 448–459 CE was pivotal in East Central Europe, marking the dramatic end of Attila’s expansive Hunnic empire and initiating a complex period of regional realignment. The fragmentation of Hunnic authority significantly reshaped local power dynamics, redefined tribal autonomy, and created lasting geopolitical shifts. The Rugian and proto-Slavic communities’ resilience provided important continuity amidst instability, setting the stage for the new tribal and cultural landscapes that would dominate the region’s subsequent historical development.

The Decline of Urban Life and the Rise of a Barter Economy

As barbarian raids intensify across the Western Roman Empire, many Romans and provincial citizens begin abandoning towns and cities in favor of the countryside, where they are less vulnerable to attacks. This gradual urban exodus signals a profound economic and social transformation, as the empire’s once-thriving commercial networks deteriorate and centralized governance weakens.

The Collapse of Urban Centers

For centuries, Roman cities had been the economic and administrative hubs of the empire, relying on long-distance trade, taxation, and monetary exchange. However, by the mid-fifth century:

• Repeated invasions and sackings—by groups such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Huns—leave cities damaged, depopulated, or abandoned.
• Public infrastructure deteriorates, including roads, aqueducts, and marketplaces, making it harder to sustain urban economies.
• Imperial authority weakens, leaving many regions without effective governance, law enforcement, or protection from raiders.

The Shift Toward a Rural Economy

As Roman cities decline, economic activity shifts to rural estates, particularly villae owned by the aristocracy. These self-sufficient agricultural estates become the primary centers of production and survival, marking the early foundations of the feudal system that will dominate the medieval world.

The Rise of Barter and Localized Trade

With the collapse of long-distance monetary trade and the breakdown of centralized coin-based economies, a barter system gradually replaces organized commerce:

• Local exchanges of goods and services become the primary means of trade, as coins lose circulation and value.
• Landowners, peasants, and craftsmen rely on in-kind payments, exchanging crops, livestock, and handmade goods rather than currency.
• Luxury goods and imports from the Eastern Mediterranean become increasingly rare, isolating the Western provinces from Byzantine and Middle Eastern markets.

A Defining Moment in Rome’s Transformation

This shift from an urban, market-driven economy to a localized, agrarian barter economy marks a defining moment in the decline of the Western Roman Empire. As cities empty and commerce fades, the structure of society increasingly revolves around rural estates and localized power, setting the stage for the emergence of medieval feudalism.

Eastern Southeast Europe (448–459 CE): Recovery, Consolidation, and Continued Vigilance

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Post-Hunnic Stabilization

Between 448 and 459 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe began recovering from the severe disruptions caused by the devastating Hun invasions under Attila. Gradual restoration of stability allowed settlements and urban centers to regain strength, reorganizing demographic distributions and reviving social structures.

Consolidation of Defensive Settlements

Major cities, particularly Constantinople and Philippopolis, continued to enhance defensive infrastructures. Urban fortifications were reinforced and expanded, ensuring greater protection against potential future threats and fostering regional stability.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Recovery and Continuity

Regional economies began a cautious recovery from previous upheaval, benefiting from improving security conditions. Agricultural productivity resumed, and urban commerce gradually re-established trade links, facilitating regional economic stabilization.

Technological and Defensive Innovations

Advancements in military and defensive technology continued to develop, particularly in improved fortification systems, armament manufacturing, and logistical management. These innovations significantly increased the region's defensive capacity and military preparedness.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Continuity and Revitalization

Cultural and artistic activities flourished despite earlier disruptions, reflecting ongoing resilience and adaptability. Public art, religious architecture, and urban monuments combining classical and Christian themes continued to be actively maintained and expanded.

Educational and Intellectual Resilience

Institutions of learning preserved and promoted classical knowledge, demonstrating intellectual vitality despite challenging conditions. Scholarly endeavors adapted to the evolving regional contexts, thereby maintaining a continuous cultural heritage.

Social and Religious Developments

Administrative Strengthening

Provincial governance systems further solidified their administrative effectiveness, improving local governance, military oversight, and civic management. This strengthening of administration significantly contributed to the region's enduring stability.

Further Expansion of Christianity

Christianity continued expanding its influence deeply into regional culture, society, and politics. Religious institutions increased their roles in societal guidance and community cohesion, reinforcing stability amid ongoing challenges.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 448 to 459 CE marked a crucial phase of regional recovery and defensive consolidation. The reinforced fortifications, economic revival, cultural resilience, and improved governance significantly shaped Eastern Southeast Europe’s stability, laying foundations essential for its continued historical trajectory toward Byzantine dominance.