The Integration of Auvergne into the Appanage of John, Duke of Berry (1360)

In 1360, King John II of France granted Auvergne as an appanage to his third son, John of Berry, consolidating his territorial holdings in central France. This marked the latest phase in Auvergne’s shifting political status, as it had previously been incorporated into various appanages within the French royal family.

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Historical Background: Auvergne Under the Capetians

• Originally an independent county, Auvergne had been absorbed into the royal domain and assigned to various appanages—lands granted to cadet branches of the royal family.
• In the 13th century, Auvergne became part of the appanage of Alphonse of Poitiers (Count of Poitou and Count of Toulouse, 1241–1271), a brother of King Louis IX (Saint Louis).
• Upon Alphonse’s death without heirs (1271), Auvergne returned to the French Crown and was later reassigned.

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John of Berry’s Appanage (1360)

• Following the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais (1360) and his release from English captivity, King John II granted John of Berry a large appanage in central France, which included:
  • The Duchy of Berry
  • The Duchy of Auvergne
  • The County of Poitiers
  • The County of Montpensier
• This move solidified John’s power in the region, making him one of the wealthiest and most influential princes in France.

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Significance and Impact

• The integration of Auvergne into John’s appanage strengthened his political and economic base, reinforcing his status as a key figure in French politics.
• John of Berry became known for his administrative reforms, patronage of the arts, and role in the Valois court.
• The duchy remained part of his family’s holdings until it was eventually reintegrated into the French Crown in later centuries.

By 1360, Auvergne had become a central part of the vast territories granted to John, Duke of Berry, ensuring his prominence within the French nobility and the political structure of the Valois monarchy.

 

The 1371 French Offensive Against English Guyenne

By 1371, King Charles V of France sought to continue his campaign to drive the English from their remaining possessions in Guyenne (Aquitaine). To achieve this, he entrusted military leadership to his most capable commanders, Constable Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson, both of whom had already proven their effectiveness in reversing English gains in France.

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French Strategy and Division of Command

• Charles V ordered a two-pronged attack, assigning:
  • Bertrand du Guesclin to lead the offensive in Auvergne, focusing on reclaiming English-held fortresses and strategic towns in central France.
  • Olivier de Clisson to attack English positions in Poitou, Saintonge, and Anjou during the summer of 1371, disrupting English-controlled trade routes and fortifications.

Francis I’s Annexation of the Dauphinate of Auvergne (1525)

What historians conventionally refer to as the Dauphinate of Auvergne was, in reality, the surviving remnant of the original County of Auvergne, established in 1360. The County had been closely connected to the fortunes of the powerful House of Bourbon, whose leading representative in the early sixteenth century was Charles III, Duke of Bourbon and Montpensier.

In 1523, Duke Charles, embittered by a prolonged dispute over family inheritance and the loss of favor at court, had defected to the service of Emperor Charles V, triggering a serious crisis for the French crown. In retaliation, King Francis I confiscated Bourbon’s extensive estates, including Auvergne.

In 1525, following Duke Charles’s open rebellion and defection to the imperial side in the ongoing Italian Wars, Francis formally incorporated the former Dauphinate of Auvergne directly into the French royal domain. This annexation not only strengthened the crown territorially and financially but also served as a warning to other powerful nobles considering challenges to royal authority.

Significance

The annexation of Auvergne in 1525 represented a key step in Francis I’s strategy of reducing feudal power bases in favor of royal centralization. In the long term, this contributed to the growing consolidation of the French monarchy, significantly diminishing the independence and influence of France’s leading aristocratic houses.

Michelin, a rubber tire company, is incorporated by two brothers, André Michelin and Édouard Michelin, on May 28, 1889.

André, thirty-three in 1886, had abandoned his career as a successful Parisian engineer to take over his grandfather's failing agricultural goods and farm equipment business.

Established in 1832,"Michelin et Cie", which sells farm equipment and an odd assortment of vulcanized rubber products, such as belts, valves and pipes, had suffered from neglect and was on the verge of insolvency following the founder's death.

Édouard seemed destined for a career as an artist, but returned to Clermont-Ferrand around 1888 in order to help his elder brother.

Named managing director, Édouard begins in 1889 to improve greatly on the design of the pneumatic tire  for bicycles, making tires easier to change and repair.

Michelin takes out its first patent in 1891 for a removable pneumatic tire, which is used by Charles Terront to win the world's first long distance cycle race, the 1891 Paris–Brest–Paris.