The Fragmentation of the Roman World

By the mid-fifth century, the Roman Empire is rapidly losing control over vast portions of its territory as barbarian powers consolidate their rule. The empire, once the unchallenged hegemon of the Mediterranean world, now faces multiple existential threats on several fronts.

• The Huns in the Balkans – Under the leadership of Ruga and later Attila, the Huns overrun large swaths of the Balkans, devastating Thrace, Illyricum, and Moesia. The Eastern Roman Empire, despite its wealth and strong defenses, is forced to pay heavy tribute to the Huns to stave off further invasions.
• The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa – The Vandals, having crossed into North Africa in 429 CE, establish a kingdom centered in Carthage under King Gaiseric. By 439 CE, they seize control of the Roman fleet and Mediterranean trade routes, cutting off vital grain supplies to Italy and posing a direct threat to Rome itself.
• The Fracturing of Western Europe – Across Gaul, Hispania, and Britain, a variety of tribal kingdoms continue to expand at the empire’s expense:
  • The Visigoths, having settled in Aquitania, expand their domain into southern Gaul and Iberia, weakening Roman authority there.
  • The Franks, under Chlodio, consolidate their rule in northern Gaul, laying the foundation for future Frankish expansion.
  • The Burgundians establish a foothold along the Rhône Valley, carving out their own kingdom within former imperial lands.
  • Roman Britain, abandoned by the imperial government, falls into political fragmentation, leaving it vulnerable to Saxon and Pictish incursions.

The Unraveling of Roman Authority

The simultaneous rise of Hunnic dominance in the East, Vandal naval supremacy in the South, and the emergence of new Germanic kingdoms in the West signals the irreversible fragmentation of the Western Roman Empire. By the mid-fifth century, imperial control is largely nominal outside of Italy, and even the heartland of Rome itself is now under constant threat from external powers.