The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms is a period of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty.

During this period, five dynasties quickly succeed one another in the North, and more than a dozen independent states are established, mainly in the South.

However, only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era's name, "Ten Kingdoms."

Some historians, such as Bo Yang, count eleven, including Yan and Qi, but not Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han.

East Central Europe (904–915 CE): Magyar Domination, Saxon Ducal Strengthening, and Post-Moravian Political Realignment

Between 904 and 915 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and eastern portions of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of a line from approximately 48.2°N at 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—underwent transformative shifts due to the firm establishment of Magyar dominance in the Carpathian Basin, the strengthening of Saxon autonomy under the Liudolfing dynasty, and the political fragmentation following Great Moravia’s collapse. These changes significantly redefined the region’s political landscape, cultural dynamics, and demographic patterns, influencing future medieval states and principalities.

Political and Military Developments

Magyar Consolidation in the Carpathian Basin

• By the early 10th century, Magyar tribes firmly established themselves in present-day Hungary, exerting regional dominance through continuous raids into neighboring territories, including Moravia, Bavaria, and the Carolingian East Frankish realms, significantly destabilizing regional power structures.

Saxon Ducal Strengthening under Otto the Illustrious

• In Saxony, Otto the Illustrious (d. 912) further consolidated political and military authority, fortifying the Liudolfing dynasty’s territorial and political control. His leadership set the foundation for Saxony’s pivotal role in the upcoming Ottonian imperial ascendancy.

Fragmentation and Emergence of Successor States after Great Moravia

• Following Great Moravia’s collapse under relentless Magyar incursions, the region fragmented into smaller Slavic principalities, notably in Bohemia and the emerging Přemyslid state, as well as in territories later forming parts of Poland and Slovakia.

Economic and Technological Developments

Regional Economic Disruption and Shift

• Persistent Magyar raids severely disrupted traditional trade networks, particularly impacting Moravia and the eastern frontier regions. Economic activity increasingly shifted toward stable western areas, notably Bavaria and Saxony, adjusting trade patterns accordingly.

Intensified Fortification and Military Infrastructure

• Heightened insecurity due to Magyar threats prompted significant investments in military infrastructure, notably reinforced hillforts, walled settlements, and frontier defensive systems, particularly in Saxony, Bavaria, and emerging Bohemian strongholds.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Persistence and Adaptation of Moravian Cultural Traditions

• Despite political disintegration, Moravian cultural traditions survived in regional ecclesiastical centers, notably preserving the Cyril-Methodian legacy and the Slavic liturgical heritage across successor principalities in Bohemia and Slovakia.

Saxon Cultural and Ecclesiastical Growth

• Under Liudolfing patronage, Saxon territories continued developing distinctive cultural identities through ecclesiastical foundations, manuscript illumination, monastic learning, and the integration of Frankish artistic and administrative traditions.

Settlement and Urban Development

Decline of Former Moravian Centers

• Major Moravian urban centers experienced further decline or abandonment due to political fragmentation and ongoing Magyar invasions, leading to increased settlement decentralization and relocation toward defensible highlands and fortified sites.

Continued Saxon and Bavarian Urban Stability

• In Saxony and Bavaria, urban centers maintained relative stability and modest growth despite disruptions, supported by regional economic realignment, strong dynastic governance, and strategic fortification efforts.

Social and Religious Developments

Ecclesiastical Resilience Amid Regional Instability

• Ecclesiastical institutions maintained resilience throughout East Central Europe, offering stability and continuity amid ongoing military threats and political upheaval. The Christian Church's presence provided essential social cohesion across fragmented territories.

Saxon Aristocratic Consolidation

• The Liudolfing dynasty further entrenched its aristocratic dominance, reinforcing hierarchical social structures that became central to Saxon governance, administration, and cultural life.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 904–915 CE dramatically reshaped East Central Europe, characterized by Magyar territorial consolidation, the rise of influential Saxon ducal power, and the political fragmentation of former Moravian lands. These pivotal developments defined new political alignments, cultural trajectories, and demographic patterns, laying essential foundations for medieval regional dynamics and significantly influencing subsequent historical developments across East Central Europe.

Eastern Southeast Europe (904–915 CE): Renewed Byzantine Pressures and Bulgarian Dominance

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Stability and Integration

Between 904 and 915 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe maintained relative demographic stability, continuing the integration and consolidation of diverse populations such as Bulgarians, Slavs, and Daco-Romans.

Political and Military Developments

Byzantine Military Initiatives

This period saw renewed military pressures from the Byzantine Empire aimed at reclaiming lost territories and reasserting control over critical regions. These initiatives resulted in increased tensions and intermittent clashes along the Byzantine-Bulgarian frontiers. Notably, the imperial stronghold of Adrianople fell to the expanding Bulgarian Empire, significantly altering regional military dynamics.

Bulgarian Consolidation and Regional Dominance

Under the continued leadership of Tsar Simeon I, Bulgaria reinforced its regional dominance, successfully defending its expanded territory and maintaining significant political leverage over the Byzantine Empire. The annual tribute paid by Constantinople reinforced Bulgaria's strengthened political position.

Serbian Positioning

The Serbian principality continued its consolidation process, cautiously navigating between Byzantine and Bulgarian influences. This delicate political balancing act enabled Serbia to strengthen its internal structures and regional significance gradually.

Role of the Paulicians

The Paulicians gained increased importance in Thrace, where many had been forcibly relocated by the Byzantine authorities to serve as a frontier force against Bulgarian advances. Their presence further highlighted the strategic defensive measures employed by the empire during this period.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Resilience

The regional economy continued its resilience, driven by sustained agricultural productivity, robust trade networks, and stable infrastructure. Trade activities, particularly those involving the Italian maritime republics, played a pivotal role in supporting regional economic stability.

Defensive Enhancements

Military fortifications and defensive strategies continued to evolve, reflecting ongoing geopolitical tensions. Both Bulgarian and Byzantine territories saw significant investments in defensive capabilities to secure borders and protect economic interests.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Continued Cultural Flourishing

Artistic and cultural activities thrived during this period, supported by sustained stability and regional prosperity. Byzantine and Bulgarian artistic expressions continued to evolve, reflecting broader cultural exchanges and influences.

Scholarly and Literary Expansion

Educational institutions and scriptoria experienced further growth, reinforcing cultural continuity and intellectual resilience. The ongoing production of manuscripts and literary works contributed significantly to regional cultural heritage.

Social and Religious Developments

Strengthening of Orthodox Christianity

Eastern Orthodox Christianity continued to significantly influence societal structures, shaping cultural identity and community cohesion. Religious institutions played a vital role in regional stability and cultural unity.

Ecclesiastical Stability

Despite earlier ecclesiastical tensions, relations between Eastern and Western Christian institutions remained stable during this period. The continued influence of Eastern Orthodoxy facilitated ongoing religious harmony and social integration across the region.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 904 to 915 CE was characterized by renewed Byzantine military initiatives, continued Bulgarian dominance, and sustained regional stability. These developments significantly shaped the geopolitical dynamics and cultural landscape of Eastern Southeast Europe, laying the groundwork for future historical trajectories and enduring regional influences.

The imperial stronghold of Adrianople falls to the expanding Bulgarian Empire.

The importance of the Paulicians after the ninth century lies chiefly in Thrace, where many of them have been forcibly located to serve as a frontier force against the Bulgarians.

The Muslim Arabs control most of northwest India by 900.

Unlike previous settlers in India, the Muslim immigrants are not absorbed into Hindu society.

The millions of Hindus who had been converted to Islam augment their ranks.

Although there is cultural interchange between Hindu and Muslim, no homogeneity emerges.

The significant and permanent military movement of Muslims into North India is accomplished by a Turkish dynasty that arises indirectly from the ruins of the 'Abbasid caliphate.

The establishment of Turkish power in India is initially tied up with politics in the Punjab.

The Punjab is ruled by Jayapala of the Hindu Shahiya dynasty, which had in the ninth century wrested the Kabul Valley and Gandhara from a Turkish Shahiya.

Political and economic relations are extremely close between the Punjab and Afghanistan.

Afghanistan in turn is closely involved with Central Asian politics.

Arab corsairs carry away some twenty thousand inhabitants of Thessalonica, the second city of the Empire, into slavery in North Africa and Crete.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (904–915 CE): Saeculum Obscurum and Papal Corruption

The era 904–915 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is notably characterized by the beginning of the Saeculum obscurum ("Dark Age") in papal history, alongside continued political complexity and cultural dynamism in the region.

Saeculum Obscurum in the Papacy

The period beginning in 904 CE, marked by the installation of Pope Sergius III, initiates the infamous Saeculum obscurum, a sixty-year phase in which the papacy falls under significant influence from the powerful and corrupt aristocratic Roman family known as the Theophylacti and their relatives. This era, characterized by widespread corruption, nepotism, and political manipulation, profoundly undermines papal prestige and spiritual authority, with repercussions extending throughout Christendom.

Continued Political Fragmentation in Italy

Italy remains politically fragmented, with local aristocratic families gaining prominence amid weakened Carolingian imperial authority. The compromised papacy, deeply entangled with aristocratic factions, contributes further to this political decentralization, reducing Rome's ability to assert coherent leadership across the Italian territories.

Internal Turmoil and Regional Autonomy in Al-Andalus

In Al-Andalus, Emir Abdallah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912 CE) continues struggling with internal conflicts, rebellions, and regional autonomy. Powerful local families and governors retain semi-independent status, intensifying the decentralization and weakening the central Umayyad authority in Córdoba, although cultural and intellectual activity remains vibrant.

Mozarab and Jewish Cultural Resilience

Mozarab and Jewish communities persist in their cultural vitality, maintaining significant roles in urban life, scholarship, and commerce. Lucena, in particular, remains a leading Jewish intellectual center, continuing its rich scholarly tradition and fostering intercultural exchange.

Economic Stability and Technological Advances

Economic activity remains robust, supported by sustained technological innovations like the Catalan forge, which significantly enhance iron production. These developments underpin continued agricultural productivity, military effectiveness, and urban prosperity across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Legacy of the Era

The era 904–915 CE marks a dark chapter in papal history, overshadowed by the influence of the Theophylacti family, but simultaneously exhibits continued cultural resilience and economic stability throughout the region. These dynamics reflect the complexity of Mediterranean Southwest Europe's transition toward the central medieval period.

Saeculum obscurum (Latin: the Dark Age) is a name given to a period in the history of the Papacy during the first half of the tenth century, beginning in 904 with the installation of Pope Sergius III; it will last for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII in 964.

During this period, the Popes are influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives.

North Africa (904–915 CE)

Fatimid Ascendancy, Aghlabid Collapse, and Regional Realignment

Between 904 and 915 CE, North Africa undergoes profound political realignment, marked by the collapse of the longstanding Aghlabid Dynasty, the decisive rise of the Fatimid Caliphate, and intensified fragmentation within the Idrisid Dynasty.

In Ifriqiya, the Fatimid movement, driven by Ismaili Shia missionaries among the Kutama Berbers, reaches a climactic point. The influential preacher Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i leads the Kutama Berbers in decisive campaigns against the weakened Sunni Aghlabids, rapidly consolidating their control over significant territories. By 909 CE, the Kutama-led forces seize Kairouan (Al Qayrawan), effectively ending Aghlabid rule. In the aftermath, the Ismaili leader from Syria, Ubaydallah al-Mahdi Billah, is installed as imam and caliph. Declaring himself caliph, Ubaydallah establishes the strategically and economically significant city of Mahdia as his new capital, formally inaugurating the Fatimid Dynasty, named after Fatima, daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali, from whom the imam claims descent.

The establishment of the Fatimid state profoundly reshapes North African politics. With the conquest of Tahert (modern Tiaret) and the displacement of the Ibadi Rustamid Dynasty in 909 CE, the Fatimids replace the Ibadi Kharijite governance with centralized Shia rule, integrating this prosperous scholarly center into their expanding dominions.

In Morocco, the Idrisid Dynasty continues to experience intensified internal fragmentation, leading to the erosion of centralized political authority. Although Fez (Fès) remains a vibrant commercial and intellectual hub, emerging Berber entities such as the Miknasa and Maghrawa tribes further assert autonomy, capitalizing on Idrisid weaknesses.

Independent polities, including the coastal Barghawata confederation along Morocco’s Atlantic coast and the economically prosperous Emirate of Nekor in northern Morocco's Rif region, persist as robust centers of commerce and cultural interchange, benefiting from stable Mediterranean trade relations. Concurrently, the Saharan city-state of Sijilmasa, under the strategic oversight of influential Tuareg tribes, continues flourishing through lucrative trans-Saharan commerce.

By the conclusion of 915 CE, the regional order of North Africa is fundamentally transformed. The rise of the Fatimids represents a pivotal realignment, challenging established Sunni powers and setting the stage for further territorial expansion and political consolidation in the Maghreb and beyond.