The Middle East: 1720–1731 CE

Dynastic Shifts and Regional Upheaval

This era marks significant realignments across the Middle East as major empires face internal struggles and emerging powers begin to reshape regional dynamics.

In Safavid Persia, internal decay reaches a critical point, culminating dramatically in 1722 when Afghan forces, led by Mahmud Hotak, invade and capture Isfahan, effectively ending Safavid dominance. Sultan Husayn is forced to abdicate, and Afghan rulers briefly establish control over central Persia. This upheaval sends ripples throughout the region, destabilizing traditional power balances and leaving Persia fractured and vulnerable to further incursions.

In response to Safavid collapse, Russia and the Ottoman Empire seize the opportunity to expand their territories. The Ottomans occupy western provinces, including Azerbaijan, Armenia, and parts of western Persia. The Treaty of Constantinople in 1724 formalizes a division of Persian territories between these two empires, intensifying geopolitical rivalries and complicating local governance.

In Iraq, despite nominal Ottoman rule, tribal autonomy continues to prevail, exacerbated by weakened central authority. Cities like Basra and Baghdad are governed by influential local dynasties and prominent tribal leaders, further fragmenting imperial governance. This decentralization fosters economic stagnation and internal instability, making Iraq a frontier region with limited control from Constantinople.

On the Arabian Peninsula, the Yarubid Imamate in Oman faces severe internal strife following a disputed succession after Imam Sultan bin Saif II's death in 1718. This dynastic turmoil leads to a debilitating civil war that weakens Oman’s maritime dominance and disrupts its established trading networks in East Africa and the Indian Ocean. Rival factions within the Yarubid dynasty vie fiercely for supremacy, severely diminishing the state’s previous power and cohesiveness.

Meanwhile, in the Levant, specifically Lebanon and Syria, Ottoman governance continues to decline, allowing powerful local families and tribal leaders to consolidate control. Beirut and Aleppo maintain economic vitality, largely due to ongoing European trade interests. French and British traders, protected under agreements known as "capitulations," continue to establish influential commercial presences, furthering European cultural and political influence in the region.

In Caucasian Armenia and Georgia, the fragmentation and instability caused by declining Persian power and Ottoman territorial ambitions increase local vulnerability. While Armenians under Ottoman administration retain religious autonomy through the millet system, Georgia remains fractured, its territories contested between Ottoman and Persian spheres of influence.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1720 and 1731 CE, the Middle East experiences pivotal shifts as the Safavid collapse significantly alters regional power structures. Afghan incursions into Persia, Ottoman-Russian territorial expansions, Omani civil strife, and enhanced European influence characterize a turbulent period. These events set the stage for subsequent power realignments that will reshape the region profoundly in the decades to come.