Mani, born an exceptionally gifted child of Iranian (Parthian) parentage in Babylon, had inherited his father's mystic temperament, and it is said that communications of a supernatural character came to him.

He had first encountered religion in his early youth while living with a Jewish-Christian ascetic group known as the Elcesaites, a subgroup of the Ebionites.

In his mid-twenties, he had come to believe that salvation was possible through education, self-denial, vegetarianism, fasting, and chastity.

He will later claim to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, the Last Prophet or Seal of the Prophets, finalizing a succession of men guided by God, which included figures such as Seth, Noah, Abraham, Shem, Nikotheos, Enoch, Zoroaster, Hermes, Plato, Buddha and Jesus.

Mani also follows the Indian holy books, the Puranas and the Kural.

Mani's first excursion had been to the Kushan Empire in northwestern India (several religious paintings in Bamiyan are attributed to him), where he is believed to have lived and taught for some time.

Traveling and preaching throughout the Persian Empire and as far as India, with many disciples to carry out evangelism, he has gathered considerable adherents to his view that the world is irreconcilably divided into the kingdoms of light and darkness, representing good and evil, and that only an abstemious life offers salvation of the soul from the darkness that entraps it.

After forty years of evangelizing, he returns with his retinue to Persia and converts Peroz, King Shapur's brother, to his teaching.

During this period, the large existing religious groups, most notably Christianity and Zoroastrianism, are competing for stronger political and social power.

Although having fewer adherents than Zoroastrianism, for example, Manichaeism wins the support of high ranking political figures and with the aid of the Persian Empire, Mani will initiate several missionary excursions.

Many legends have grown up around Bishop Gregory of Neocaesarea, earning him the name Thaumaturgus (Greek for "wonder-worker").

In his “Exposition of the Faith,” Gregory attacks the teachings of Sabellianism (also known as modalism, modalistic monarchianism, or modal monarchism), the nontrinitarian belief that the Heavenly Father, Resurrected Son, and Holy Spirit are different modes or aspects of one God (for us only), rather than three distinct persons (in Himself).

God was said to have three "faces" or "masks".

The question is: "is God's threeness a matter of our falsely seeing it to be so (Sabellianism/modalism), or a matter of God's own essence revealed as three-in-one (orthodox Trinitarianism)?"

Modalists note that the only number ascribed to God in the Holy Bible is One and that there is no inherent threeness ascribed to God explicitly in scripture.

Plotinus, who may have been a Hellenized Egyptian, had taken up the study of philosophy at the age of twenty-seven, around the year 232, and traveled to Alexandria to study.

There Plotinus was dissatisfied with every teacher he encountered until an acquaintance suggested he listen to the ideas of Ammonius Saccas, a Greek philosopher from Alexandria often referred to as the founder of the Neoplatonism.

Upon hearing Ammonius lecture, he had declared to his friend, "this was the man I was looking for," and began to study intently under his new instructor.

Besides Ammonius, the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Numenius, and various Stoics also influence Plotinus.

After spending the next eleven years in Alexandria, he decided to investigate the philosophical teachings of the Persians and the Indians around the age of thirty-eight.

Accordingly, he left Alexandria and joined the army of Gordian III as it marched on Persia.

However, the campaign was a failure, and on Gordian's eventual death in February 244, Plotinus found himself abandoned in a hostile land, and only with difficulty found his way back to safety in Antioch.

He had come to Rome in 244 and become head of an influential philosophical academy here, where he has begun to develop the Roman school of Neoplatonism.

Plotinus dislikes writing, but his students finally persuade him, at the age of fifty, to set his ideas to paper.

Cyprian, a teacher of rhetoric and literature, was probably born to wealthy parents at the beginning of the third century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he had received an excellent classical (pagan) education.

After converting to Christianity in 246, he had soon been ordained a priest and in 249 had become bishop here.

Forced to flee Carthage during the persecutions of Decius that had begun in 249, he had returned two years later upon Decius’ assassination.

He applies himself to the problem of Christians who had failed to stand firm during the persecution, favoring the readmission of such Christians to the church but under stringent conditions.

In opposition to the schism of Novatian, who maintains that lapsed Christians should be permanently excluded, Cyprian holds that baptisms performed by the schismatics are invalid; Pope Stephen opposes him on this issue.

Cyprian’s writing is strongly influenced by that of Tertullian, for whom he holds great regard.

In his De ecclesiae unitate (“On the Unity of the Church”), Cyprian emphasizes the role of the bishop in deciding local church matters, although he accords the Roman church the preeminent position.

Each of the expeditions launched by Shu Han general Jiang Wei has ultimately been aborted due to inadequate food supplies or battlefield losses.

Jiang Wei's fifteen years of campaigning have drained Shu's already limited resources, and lead to the eventual downfall of Shu in 263 at the hands of its rival, Wei.

The conquest ends the tripartite equilibrium maintained in China for over forty years since the end of the Han Dynasty in 220 and signifies the beginning of a reunified China under the Jin Dynasty.

East Central Europe (256–267 CE): Peak Tribal Invasions and Roman Frontier Fragmentation

Between 256 and 267 CE, East Central Europe—covering Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced intense regional upheaval, marked by large-scale invasions, tribal migrations, and collapsing Roman provincial control during the continuing Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE). Roman frontier provinces (Pannonia Superior, Pannonia Inferior, Noricum) faced repeated invasions by the increasingly powerful Goths from the east and north, as well as intensified pressures from established groups such as the Marcomanni, Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatian Iazyges, leading to widespread instability and reshaped regional dynamics.

Political and Military Developments

Escalation of Tribal Incursions

• The Roman frontier defenses along the Danube experienced relentless incursions, especially by newly powerful Gothic tribes, who penetrated deeply into Roman territory, threatening key settlements and provincial stability.

• The Vandals, Marcomanni, and Quadi increased their raids significantly, capitalizing on Roman internal disorder and weakening frontier defenses.

• The Sarmatian Iazyges intensified cross-border raids into Roman Pannonia, further straining defensive capacities.

Imperial Fragmentation and Frontier Vulnerability

• Roman imperial authority fragmented further amid rapid turnover of emperors and ongoing internal strife, severely weakening frontier administration and defense capabilities.

• The political chaos within the Roman Empire left frontier provinces vulnerable, resulting in considerable territorial losses and military setbacks.

Economic and Technological Developments

Widespread Economic Breakdown

• Severe disruptions in trade and commerce occurred due to persistent insecurity, repeated tribal incursions, and breakdowns in infrastructure. Frontier markets collapsed or diminished significantly, severely affecting local and regional economies.

Decline in Infrastructure Maintenance

• Infrastructure development, maintenance of fortifications, roads, and bridges nearly halted, contributing further to regional economic and defensive deterioration.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Decline and Survival Strategies

• Cultural production along the Roman frontier decreased markedly, shifting overwhelmingly toward defensive strategies and practical military needs. Material culture focused heavily on survival, security, and resilience.

Restricted Cultural Exchange

• Cultural exchanges continued at significantly reduced levels, constrained by insecurity, instability, and frequent conflict.

Settlement and Urban Development

Diminished and Fortified Roman Towns

• Roman frontier settlements (Carnuntum, Vindobona, Aquincum) became smaller, heavily fortified, and primarily defensive in nature. Populations declined due to warfare, migration, and economic hardship.

Tribal Settlement Instability

• Tribal communities adapted through greater mobility and frequent relocations, reflecting the chaotic nature of the period and increased threats from larger tribal confederations and regional migrations.

Social and Religious Developments

Militarization of Tribal Society

• Tribal societies intensified their militarization, as warrior elites and chieftains increased their dominance. Leadership increasingly centered around success in warfare, survival strategies, and territorial defense.

Intensified Religious and Protective Rituals

• Religious practices intensified significantly, focusing on rituals emphasizing martial prowess, protection, and community solidarity amid ongoing conflict and instability.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 256 to 267 CE represented the peak of frontier disruptions in East Central Europe during the Crisis of the Third Century. It decisively reshaped regional power dynamics, eroded Roman authority along the Danube, and laid the groundwork for major demographic shifts and tribal migrations that profoundly impacted the region’s subsequent historical development. This period’s events became pivotal in shaping the cultural, political, and ethnic composition of East Central Europe in the centuries that followed.

Eastern Southeast Europe (256–267 CE): Imperial Instability and Frontier Conflict

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continued Gothic Incursions

Following Cniva's precedent, Gothic and other Germanic tribes continued frequent incursions across the Danube frontier, destabilizing settlements throughout Thrace, Moesia, and surrounding provinces. Roman frontier defenses were repeatedly tested, causing further demographic disruptions and forced relocations of local populations.

Political and Military Developments

Imperial Instability and Succession Crises

This era witnessed significant political instability and frequent changes of emperors, weakening Roman governance in Eastern Southeast Europe. Rapid turnovers of imperial authority undermined efforts at coherent frontier defense, allowing Gothic and other tribal incursions to become more frequent and bold.

Defensive Consolidation under Gallienus

In response to escalating crises, Emperor Gallienus (r. 253–268 CE) initiated crucial military reforms, including establishing mobile cavalry forces and reinforcing strategic fortifications along the Danube. These measures aimed to contain frequent barbarian raids, though their effectiveness remained limited amid persistent instability.

Economic and Technological Developments

Strained Economic Conditions

Economic conditions worsened under constant threat of invasion, severely disrupting agricultural production and regional trade networks. Markets suffered persistent insecurity, weakening regional commerce, and prosperity previously enjoyed during stable imperial eras.

Focus on Defensive Infrastructure

Investment in regional infrastructure primarily focused on defensive fortifications, bolstering cities and military outposts along frontier zones. Existing Roman roads and supply routes received critical attention to support rapid military mobilization.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Stagnation Amid Crisis

The ongoing frontier conflicts significantly constrained cultural and artistic production. Resources shifted away from monumental public and civic projects toward immediate military and defensive needs, limiting new cultural initiatives.

Social and Religious Developments

Social Fragmentation and Local Autonomy

Social cohesion weakened under persistent threats and imperial neglect, causing local elites to assume greater autonomy for defense and governance. Communities increasingly relied on local leadership rather than distant imperial authority, reflecting broader trends toward decentralization.

Continuity of Religious Practices

Despite instability, traditional Roman religious observances continued to provide social cohesion. Christianity slowly expanded, though its growth was uneven amid disrupted societal conditions and regional insecurity.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 256 to 267 CE represented a critical stage of Roman imperial decline in Eastern Southeast Europe, marked by increased frontier instability, economic strain, and social fragmentation. These developments significantly undermined regional stability, laying groundwork for later, more profound transformations in the region's political and cultural landscape.

The Middle East: 256–267 CE

Shapur I’s Triumph and Roman Counterattack

The era 256 to 267 CE is dominated by dramatic confrontations between the Roman Empire and the increasingly assertive Sassanid Empire under the formidable leadership of Shapur I.

In 260 CE, Shapur achieves a spectacular victory by defeating the Roman army at the Battle of Edessa, capturing the Roman Emperor Valerian himself—a humiliating and unprecedented event in Roman history. Valerian's capture dramatically undermines Roman prestige, symbolizing the shifting power dynamics in the region.

Emboldened, Shapur pushes deeper into Roman territory, penetrating Anatolia between 258 and 260 CE. However, Roman resilience prevails. A vigorous counteroffensive led by Odaenathus, ruler of Palmyra and ally of Rome, successfully repels the Sassanids, forcing Shapur to retreat and relinquish recently captured territories, including Antioch and Armenia.

Despite these setbacks, Shapur's victories have lasting implications. His exploits highlight the Sassanid Empire's ability to rival Roman power and foreshadow ongoing conflicts that will define Roman–Persian relations for centuries to come. This period underscores a delicate balance of power, characterized by shifting borders, strategic alliances, and intense rivalries between two of antiquity’s greatest empires.

The Sassanid king Shapur captures Emperor Valerian after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa.

He advances into Anatolia between 258 and 260 but is defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from Odaenathus force the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering Armenia and Antioch.

The first of two massive invasions into Roman territory by "Scythian" tribes (as our sources anachronistically call them, probably referring to their geographical origin—Scythia, i.e., the Pontic region north of the Danube—rather than to the Scythian people, steppe nomads of Iranic origin, related to the Sarmatians, who had supplanted the Scythians' dominance of the steppes in the period BCE) comes during Gallienus's reign.

It begins in 267 when the Heruli, raiding from five hundred ships, ravage the southern Black Sea coast and unsuccessfully attack Byzantium and Cyzicus.

Defeated by the Roman navy, they manage to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they ravage the islands of Lemnos and Scyros and sack several cities of the southern Greece province of Achaea, including Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta.

An Athenian militia, led by the historian Dexippus, then pushes the invaders to the North, where they are intercepted by the Roman army under Gallienus.

He wins an important victory near the Nessos (Nestos) river, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, with the aid of the Dalmatian cavalry.

Reported barbarian casualties are three thousand men.

The Heruli leader Naulobatus subsequently comes to terms with the Romans.