The Middle East: 345–334 BCE

Persian Decline and the Rise of Alexander the Great

The era from 345 to 334 BCE marks the final years of Persian authority under Artaxerxes III Ochus and his successors, a period characterized by internal instability, palace intrigue, and diminishing imperial cohesion. Artaxerxes III attempts to reverse the gradual weakening of Persian dominance through harsh and often violent methods, including punitive campaigns against rebellious provinces such as Phoenicia and Egypt. In 343 BCE, after a fiercely contested military campaign, he successfully reconquers Egypt, reinstating Persian control after decades of independence.

Artaxerxes III's reign abruptly ends in 338 BCE when he is poisoned by his court eunuch and advisor, Bagoas, who subsequently installs Artaxerxes’s son, Arses, on the throne. However, Arses rules briefly, himself falling victim to assassination orchestrated by Bagoas two years later. In 336 BCE, Bagoas places Darius III Codomannus on the Persian throne. Contrary to Bagoas's expectations, Darius swiftly eliminates the manipulative eunuch, securing power for himself but inheriting a fragile and fractious empire.

This internal turmoil coincides with the rapid ascent of Macedonia under Philip II and, following Philip’s assassination, his son Alexander the Great. By 334 BCE, Alexander commences his historic invasion of Persian territory, crossing the Hellespont into Anatolia. The Persian Empire, weakened by internal conflicts and incapable of mounting an effective defense, faces an unprecedented existential threat as Alexander’s campaign signals the imminent end of centuries-long Persian dominance in the Near East.

Near East (345–334 BCE): Cultural Milestones and Continued Persian Authority

From 345 to 334 BCE, the Near East sees continued cultural development under ongoing Persian hegemony, punctuated by significant artistic achievements and regional political stability.

In southwestern Anatolia, cultural expression reaches a celebrated pinnacle with the creation of the famed Aphrodite of Cnidus, sculpted by Praxiteles. Renowned for its groundbreaking portrayal of the nude female form, this statue depicts the goddess Aphrodite preparing for her ritual purification, modest yet elegantly poised. Rejected by the initial patrons in Kos for its boldness, the sculpture finds acclaim and a permanent home in Knidos, becoming one of antiquity's most admired and replicated masterpieces. Its fame underscores the vibrant cultural and artistic life thriving within the Persian-controlled Greek cities.

Meanwhile, Persian authority remains consistent yet occasionally strained in Yehud, where Jerusalem continues as the religious and administrative center under the high priests. The emphasis on religious purity and adherence to the Torah keeps the Jewish community distinct within the Persian empire, reinforcing their cultural identity amidst broader regional influences.

Egypt remains a region of tenuous Persian control, its administration marked by ongoing local resistance and dissatisfaction, despite attempts to integrate the region more effectively into imperial governance. This resistance highlights Egypt’s enduring quest for autonomy and self-governance, despite significant Persian military and administrative pressure.

By 334 BCE, the Near East stands as a mosaic of Persian political dominance, Greek cultural flourishing, and local identities fiercely maintained, setting the stage for the profound changes that will follow Alexander the Great's imminent arrival.

Contemporary writers praise Praxiteles’s statue of the goddess Aphrodite—a standing nude in a languorous pose, her drapery half-covering a water jar—as the Aphrodite of Cnidus.

The statue becomes famous for its beauty, meant to be appreciated from every angle, and for being the first life-size representation of the nude female form.

It depicts the goddess Aphrodite as she prepared for the ritual bath that restored her purity (not virginity), discarding her drapery in her left hand, while modestly shielding herself with her right hand.

According to a possibly apocryphal account by Pliny, Praxiteles received a commission from the citizens of Kos for a statue of the goddess Aphrodite.

Praxiteles then created two versions—one fully draped, and the other completely nude.

The shocked citizens of Kos rejected the nude statue and purchased the draped version.

The design and appearance of the draped version is today unknown as it didn't survive, nor did it appear to have merited attention, to judge from the lack of surviving accounts.

The rejected nude is purchased by some citizens of Knidos and set up in an open air temple that permits viewing of the statue from all sides.

It quickly becomes one of the most famous works by Praxiteles for the bold depiction of Aphrodite as proudly nude.

Praxiteles was alleged to have used the courtesan Phryne as a model for the statue, which added to the gossip surrounding its origin.

The statue becomes so widely known and copied that in a humorous anecdote the goddess Aphrodite herself came to Knidos to see it.

The Cnidian Aphrodite has not survived.

Possibly the statue was removed to Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and was lost in a fire during the Nika riots.

It was one of the most widely copied statues in the ancient world, so a general idea of the appearance of the statue can be gleaned from the descriptions and replicas that have survived to the modern day.

The rise of Macedon from a small Greek kingdom at the periphery of Classical Greek affairs to one that will come to dominate the entire Hellenic world (and beyond) has occurred between 359 BCE and 336 BCE in the space of just twenty-five years.

This ascendancy is largely attributable to the personality and policies of Philip II.

When his son and successor Alexander is triumphantly campaigning in the north of Greece, a rumor of his death causes the Thebans and Athenians to rebel against Macedonian hegemony once more.

Alexander reacts immediately but, while the other cities hesitate when he advances into Greece, Thebes decides to resist with the utmost vigor.

However, the resistance is useless, and the city is captured and razed to the ground, and its territory is divided between the other Boeotian cities.

The fall of Thebes cows Athens into submission, and leaves all of Greece at least outwardly at peace with Alexander.

With Macedon's vassals and allies once again peaceable, Alexander is finally free to take control of his late father’s stalled war with Persia, and in early 334 BCE he crosses with an army of forty-two thousand men into Asia Minor.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (345–334 BCE): Conflicts in Sicily, the Latin War, and the Samnite Wars

The era 345–334 BCE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by continued conflicts in Sicily, significant shifts in Rome’s internal political structure, the critical Latin War, and early phases of Rome's prolonged conflict with the Samnites.

Timoleon’s Intervention in Sicily

Responding to appeals from Syracuse for assistance against ongoing internal strife and external threats from Sparta and Carthage, Timoleon of Corinth arrives in Sicily in 344 BCE. Swiftly gaining control of Syracuse by 343 BCE, Timoleon reestablishes democratic governance based on the laws of Diocles. He then decisively defeats the forces of Hicetas, tyrant of Leontini, and a Carthaginian army at the battle of the Crimissus. By 338 BCE, Carthage agrees to limit its influence in Sicily west of the Halycus (Platani) River, pledging no further support to local tyrants.

Roman Political and Territorial Transformations

In Rome, the Latin War (340–338 BCE) reshapes regional politics significantly. This conflict between the Roman Republic and the Latin League concludes with the league's dissolution and the extension of Roman influence throughout Latium. The territories of defeated Latin states become partially incorporated into Roman jurisdiction, with their peoples receiving varying degrees of citizenship and rights.

Further political transformations occur within Rome as plebeians gain increasingly influential positions. After 367 BCE, one of Rome’s two consuls is consistently drawn from the plebeian class, gradually enabling plebeian entry into the Senate.

The First Samnite War

The early stages of the First Samnite War (traditionally dated 343–341 BCE, though its historicity is debated), are sparked when the Samnites attack the Sidicini and subsequently threaten the powerful city-state of Capua in Campania. Capua appeals to Rome, resulting in Roman military intervention under consul Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas in 341 BCE. Rome initially ravages Samnite territory, leading the Samnites to sue for peace. The Romans withdraw after agreeing to renew their earlier treaty with the Samnites, marking the end of this brief conflict.

Cultural and Artistic Continuity

Artistic achievements continue during this period. The Ficoroni Cista, created around 350 BCE, exemplifies Etruscan craftsmanship, although possibly produced in Rome. Such artifacts demonstrate the enduring cultural vitality amidst political upheaval.

Legacy of the Era

The era 345–334 BCE significantly influences Mediterranean Southwest Europe, featuring critical shifts in Roman territorial control, decisive conflict resolution in Sicily, and foundational developments for future Roman expansion through internal reforms and external alliances. These events set crucial precedents for Rome’s ascendancy as a dominant Mediterranean power.

A group of Syracusans, spurred by the political problems of Syracuse and the threat from Sparta, send an appeal for help to Corinth in 344 BCE.

Corinth cannot refuse help, though her chief citizens decline the responsibility of attempting to establish a settled government in factious and turbulent Syracuse.

At this time, Hicetas, tyrant of Leontini, is master of Syracuse, with the exception of the island of Ortygia, which is occupied by Dionysius II, who is still nominally tyrant.

Timoleon, arriving in Sicily with a few of the leading citizens of Corinth and a small troop of Greek mercenaries, is master of Syracuse by 343, and at once begins the work of restoration, bringing new settlers from the mother-city and from Greece generally, and establishing a popular government on the basis of the democratic laws of Diocles.

Hicetas again induces Carthage to send a great army, which lands at Lilybaeum (now Marsala).

Timoleon, with a miscellaneous levy of about twelve thousand men, most of them mercenaries, marches westwards across the island into the neighborhood of Selinus and wins a great and decisive victory on the Crimissus.

Carthage, making one more effort, dispatches some mercenaries to prolong the conflict between Timoleon and the tyrants, but this effort ends in the defeat of Hicetas, who is taken prisoner and put to death.

Carthage then agrees to a treaty in 338 BCE by which Carthage will confine its presence in Sicily to the west of the Halycus (Platani) and will undertake to give no further aid to tyrants.

The First Samnite War (which may be unhistorical) started, according to Livy, not because of any enmity between Rome and the Samnites, but due to outside events.

The spark comes when the Samnites, without provocation, attack the Sidicini, a tribe living north of Campania.

Unable to stand against the Samnites, the Sidicini seek help from the Campani.

The league of the Campani is led by the city-state of Capua; the famous wealth of Campania has made Capua the most opulent city of ancient Italy.

Like the Samnites, and also the Sidicini, the Campani speak the Oscan language.

But, Livy continues, the warlike Samnites defeat the Campani in a battle on Sidicine territory, then turn their attention toward Campania.

First they seize the Tifata hills overlooking Capua, and, having left a strong force to hold them, march into the plain between the hills and Capua, where the Samnites defeat the Campani in a second battle and drive them within their walls.

This defeat compels the Campani to ask Rome for help.

Livy writes that in 341 one of the Roman consuls, Lucius Aemilius Mamercus, entered Samnite territory but found no army to oppose him.

He is ravaging their territory when Samnite envoys come to ask for peace.

When presenting their case to the Roman senate, the Samnite envoys stress their former treaty with the Romans, which, unlike the Campani, they had formed in times of peace, and that the Samnites now intend to go to war against the Sidicini, who are no friends of Rome.

The Roman praetor, T. Aemilius, delivers the reply of the senate.

Rome is willing to renew her former treaty with the Samnites.

Moreover, Rome will not involve herself in the Samnites' decision to make war or peace with the Sidicini.

Once peace has been concluded the Roman army withdraws from Samnium.

The Latin War, a conflict between the Roman Republic and its neighbors, the Latin peoples of ancient Italy, ends in the dissolution of the Latin League, and incorporation of its territory into the Roman sphere of influence, with the Latins gaining partial rights and varying levels of citizenship.

North Africa (345–334 BCE)

Carthaginian Strength, Cyrenaic Diplomacy, and Continued Berber Prosperity

Carthage’s Maritime Dominance and Economic Expansion

From 345 to 334 BCE, Carthage continues to solidify its maritime strength across the Western Mediterranean, reinforcing naval capabilities and safeguarding critical trade routes. Strategic control over northern Tunisia and important colonies like Leptis and Oea (modern Tripoli) continues to bolster regional influence and economic prosperity. The established trade networks thrive, reinforcing Carthage’s dominant economic and political position.

Diplomatic and economic partnerships with interior Berber tribes remain robust, ensuring ongoing resource flows and regional cooperation. Coastal settlements, particularly Tangier, experience sustained growth, strengthening economic integration between coastal and inland Berber communities.

Strategic Diplomacy and Regional Stability

Carthage carefully manages diplomatic relations and military tensions with Greek city-states, particularly Syracuse, over contested Sicilian territory. Effective diplomatic strategies combined with strategic military readiness enable Carthage to maintain regional equilibrium, successfully mitigating broader conflicts. Strategic diplomacy also involves careful management of relationships with Greek, Egyptian, and potentially Persian powers, contributing to stable Mediterranean geopolitics.

Cyrenaica’s Economic Prosperity and Political Stability

The Greek Pentapolis—Cyrene, Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—continues to flourish economically, driven by steady exports including grain, fruit, horses, and especially the medicinal plant Silphium. Cyrene’s ongoing investments in infrastructure and religious institutions underscore its economic vitality and sustained regional importance.

Cyrenaica adeptly navigates pressures from Carthaginian, Egyptian, and Persian influences, maintaining its autonomy through skilled diplomacy and internal governance, thus preserving Greek cultural identity and political independence.

Enhanced Berber Economic Integration and Autonomy

Coastal Berber communities continue their economic integration within Carthaginian trade networks, employing advanced agricultural practices, maritime skills, and artisanal techniques. Economic centers such as Oea (Tripoli)maintain their pivotal roles, fostering regional prosperity and facilitating stable economic integration.

Inland Berber tribes retain significant autonomy, upholding traditional governance structures and cultural practices, benefiting indirectly from prosperous coastal economies. This enduring relationship promotes regional economic stability and cultural continuity.

Deepening Cultural Exchange and Religious Syncretism

Interactions among Berber, Carthaginian, and Greek populations further enhance cultural exchanges, yielding significant artistic developments, particularly in pottery, textiles, and metalwork. Religious syncretism intensifies, effectively blending indigenous Berber traditions with Phoenician and Greek beliefs, enriching regional cultural diversity and complexity.

Strong Foundations for Continued Influence

By 334 BCE, North Africa maintains its robust political stability, economic vitality, and dynamic cultural integration. The enduring maritime strength of Carthage, Cyrenaica’s diplomatic resilience, and the continued integration of Berber communities collectively ensure the region’s sustained prominence and geopolitical influence within the Mediterranean context.

Artaxerxes collects a great army early in 345 BCE and marches against the Phoenician city of Sidon.

Mentor of Rhodes, who had helped betray Sidon, rises high in the king's favor and enters into a close understanding with the eunuch Bagoas, the king's favorite. (His name is the Greek form of an Old Persian name often used for eunuchs.)