The Middle East, 849 to 838 BCE: Assyrian Expansion and Regional Resistance

During the era 849 to 838 BCE, the Assyrian Empire, under Shalmaneser III, significantly intensifies its military campaigns, resulting in decisive victories and further consolidation of power. Meanwhile, the Iranian peoples continue to expand their presence, notably the Medes, who emerge distinctly within Assyrian records.

Assyrian Campaigns and Regional Subjugation

In 842 BCE, Shalmaneser III conducts a devastating military campaign against Damascus, significantly weakening this prominent Aramean kingdom. Following this conquest, neighboring states—including the Kingdom of Israel and the influential Phoenician city-states—submit and send tribute to Assyria. These developments mark a high point of Assyrian dominance, expanding its influence and establishing tighter control over the strategic Levantine region.

The aggressive policy of Shalmaneser III reinforces the Assyrian empire’s reputation for military prowess and ruthless authority, furthering the empire's territorial ambitions while imposing a structured tributary system on defeated rivals.

Emergence and Recognition of the Medes

During this period, Assyrian inscriptions from around 836 BCE record the presence of the Medes in the Zagros Mountains. This mention is significant as it indicates the Medes’ establishment as a distinct entity and foreshadows their eventual rise as a major regional power. Initially a loose confederation of tribal groups, the Medes begin consolidating territories and political identity, laying foundations for future prominence in the region.

Cultural and Political Implications

The ongoing expansion and assertive military campaigns of Shalmaneser III significantly alter the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East. His victories and the resulting tributary alliances reshape regional dynamics, setting the stage for both ongoing resistance and further integration of diverse peoples into the expanding Assyrian state.

The simultaneous recognition of the Medes represents an early indication of the geopolitical complexity developing east of Assyria, adding new dimensions to the regional balance of power and suggesting an emerging counterbalance to Assyrian dominance.

Assyrian writings record the presence of the Medes in the Zagros Mountains in 836 BCE.

Shalmaneser III devastates the territory of Damascus in 842 BCE; Israel and the Phoenician cities send tribute.

The Near East (849–838 BCE): Dynastic Upheaval and Religious Conflicts

The End of Ahab’s Dynasty

During this era, political turmoil and religious struggles profoundly reshape the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Following the death of King Ahab, the northern kingdom continues under the rule of his son Jehoram, who maintains the alliance with Judah forged by his father. However, Jehoram’s reign is marred by continuous warfare, notably an unsuccessful attempt to quell the Moabite revolt alongside King Jehoshaphat of Judah.

Jehoram later attempts to recapture Ramoth-gilead from the Aramean king Hazael, suffering severe wounds in battle. As he convalesces in Jezreel, his rule abruptly ends with a violent coup initiated by his own commander, Jehu. Acting on instructions from the prophet Elijah, Jehu leads a ruthless revolt around 843 BCE, eliminating Jehoram, his ally Ahaziah, king of Judah, and numerous royal family members, effectively exterminating the Omride dynasty. Notably, Jehu orders the defenestration of Jezebel, whose death—foretold by Elijah—symbolizes the end of the Phoenician alliance and the suppression of Baal worship in Israel.

Religious Strife and Prophetic Influence

Central to these upheavals is a fierce struggle over religious practices. Jezebel’s zealous promotion of Baal worship, involving hundreds of Baal prophets, is directly opposed by the prophetic activities of Elijah and his successor Elisha. Elisha, characterized by political astuteness, significantly shapes Israel's religious and political trajectory, navigating the complexities left by Elijah’s confrontational legacy.

The revolution led by Jehu, driven by religious fervor against Baal worship, underscores the continuing internal conflicts over Israelite religious identity. Although Jehu’s coup secures his ascendancy and ends the Omride dynasty, it simultaneously weakens Israel’s strategic alliances, leaving the kingdom vulnerable to external threats, notably from Assyria under Shalmaneser III. By 841 BCE, Assyria exacts tribute from Jehu, as well as from the Phoenician city of Sidon, highlighting Israel's reduced regional influence.

Judah’s Internal Struggles and Edomite Revolt

In Judah, following Jehoshaphat’s death in 849 BCE, his son Jehoram inherits the throne. Jehoram's reign, however, is plagued by severe internal unrest and external threats. His marriage to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, strengthens the alliance with Israel but introduces Baal worship into Judah. Jehoram violently consolidates power by massacring his kinsmen, but his reign is destabilized by revolts from Edom and Libnah, and invasions by Philistines and Arabs, culminating in a devastating sack of Jerusalem.

After Jehoram's death, his son Ahaziah ascends the throne but reigns briefly until he is killed during Jehu’s purge. This opens the door for Athaliah’s rule. Intent on promoting Baal worship, Athaliah seeks to eliminate the Davidic line loyal to Yahweh, sparing only the infant heir Jehoash (Joash), hidden away by priests loyal to Yahweh. After six or seven years, Athaliah's reign ends violently through a priestly-led revolt, reinstating traditional worship and the Davidic lineage.

Ezion-Geber and Regional Shifts

The strategic port city of Ezion-Geber, rebuilt under Jehoshaphat, suffers destruction again around the mid-ninth century BCE, likely due to the Edomite rebellion against Judah. This event symbolizes broader shifts in regional power dynamics and the ongoing struggle to control economically critical routes.

Summary of the Era

The years 849–838 BCE mark a period of intense dynastic upheaval and religious conflict within and between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The violent end of the Omride dynasty under Jehu profoundly reshapes Israel’s internal and external political landscape. Concurrently, Judah experiences turmoil through revolts and invasions, complicated by religious divisions introduced by Athaliah. This tumultuous period underscores the complex interplay between dynastic politics, religious identity, and regional power struggles in the Near East.

Ahab’s wife, the Sidonian princess Jezebel, zealously promotes the worship of the Phoenician god Baal and supports four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, according to the Hebrew scriptures (1 Kings).

When the prophet Elijah opposes her and rouses popular sentiment against the pagan prophets, she orders his death, forcing him to flee.

Jehoram of Israel, the son of Ahab and Jezebel and king of Israel, maintains close relations with Judah.

Together with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, Jehoram unsuccessfully attempts to subdue a revolt of Moab against Israel.

As had his father, Jehoram later endeavors to recover Ramoth-gilead from Hazael, king of Damascus.

His nephew Ahaziah, who had succeeded his father as king of Judah, aids him in this matter.

Wounded during the fighting at Ramoth-gilead, Jehoram has retired to Jezreel in Judah.

During his convalescence, Jehu, a commander of chariots on Israel's frontier facing Damascus and Assyria, leads a coup to overthrow the dynasty of Omri (II Kings 9-10) on the instructions of Elijah.

Jehu's revolt, which extinguishes the dynasty of Omri (including Jehoram, Ahaziah—who was visiting him—and Ahab's wife, Jezebel), takes place in the 840s, when the dynasty is already in decline.

Jehu slaughters the entire royal family in about 843 and purges Israel of the idolatrous Baal worship.

Jezebel, at Jehu’s order, is cast from a palace window by her eunuchs; dogs, as Elijah had supposedly prophesied, devour her body.

Elijah in 842 anoints Jehu king.

Jehu's success ends the Phoenician alliance, and the spirit of fanaticism makes its renewal impossible.

Israel alone is no match for the incursions of Assyria's Shalmaneser III, who moves westward in 841, investing Damascus and exacting tribute both from Jezebel's city of Sidon and from Jehu.

According to the Hebrew scriptures (1 Kings), the prophet Elisha, using Elijah’s mantle, carries on his late master’s attempt to shape the national destiny by announcing the divine will.

Unlike Elijah, a prophet characterized by his simplicity, Elisha is a man of political dexterity.

Jehoshaphat dies in 849 BCE and is succeeded by his son Jehoram as king of Judah, according to the Hebrew scriptures.

Jehoram marries Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and is thus brother-in-law of Jehoram of Israel.

On ascending the throne, Jehoram massacres his kinsmen.

He has to face a successful revolt by Edom, a revolt by Libnak and an invasion of Philistines and Arabs, in which Jerusalem is again sacked.

Jehoram's son Ahaziah succeeds him, but reigns for only two years, dying at Megiddo in about 847 BCE.

Because the king of Judah has been killed in Jehu's revolution—along with the remaining northern members of the house of Omri—the southern kingdom is ruled over by the queen mother, Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel.

In her zeal to propagate the faith of her mother, Athaliah seizes the opportunity to destroy the line of David that tends to be loyal to Yahweh (II Kings 11:1-3).

Liquidating all the male heirs to the throne of David—except the infant Jehoash, or Joash, who receives asylum in “the house of the Lord.

Athaliah rules for six or seven years.

With support from the priests led by Jehoiada, the army and ”the people of the land” revolt, killing Athaliah and her high priest of Baal, Mattan, and destroying the temple of Baal.

The Edomites, who rebel against Jehoram, are the probable perpetrators of the second destruction of Ezion-Geber in about the mid-ninth century.

The Middle East, 837 to 826 BCE: Internal Strife and Cultural Refinement

During the era 837 to 826 BCE, the Assyrian Empire faces internal challenges that disrupt its previously expansive momentum under Shalmaneser III. Despite internal conflicts, the period also sees significant cultural developments, notably in Assyrian dress and ceremonial customs.

Assyrian Internal Strife

In the later years of Shalmaneser III’s reign, internal tensions significantly weaken the empire. Around 828–826 BCE, Shalmaneser faces a prolonged civil war due to a rebellion initiated by his son, Ashur-danin-pal. The intense two-year conflict severely taxes Assyrian resources and military capabilities, resulting in the temporary loss of several conquered territories. Although Shalmaneser eventually suppresses the rebellion, the strife causes lasting damage to Assyrian prestige and stability, interrupting its previously steady expansion.

Cultural and Artistic Development

During this turbulent era, Assyrian society undergoes notable refinement, especially in attire and royal ceremonial customs. Assyrian fashion, heavily influenced by Babylonian styles, becomes increasingly elaborate and sophisticated. Both men and women adopt intricate robes embroidered with small repeated patterns or rosettes, showcasing the empire's wealth and artisanal skill.

Men typically wear shoulder-length hair, meticulously curled, along with well-groomed beards. Their attire often includes distinctive, decorated fez-like hats, whose embellishments denote rank and status. Similarly, women enhance their outfits with ornate woolen headbands or elaborate headpieces made of stonework and gold, emphasizing both social standing and cultural refinement.

Political and Social Implications

The period of internal strife under Shalmaneser III underscores the inherent vulnerabilities of the Assyrian Empire, highlighting the challenges of governance and succession in an expanding imperial system. At the same time, the evolution in Assyrian dress and ceremonial customs signifies a continued focus on cultural and social cohesion despite political instability. This blend of internal disruption and cultural advancement illustrates the complex dynamics that define this transformative period in Middle Eastern history.

The Assyrians have adopted attire similar to the Babylonian costume but more elaborate, including tasseled robes embroidered with small, repeated patterns or rosettes.

Men wear their hair shoulder length and curl both their hair and beards; they also wear fez-like hats, decorated to indicate rank.

Women's attire is similar, being differentiated by headbands made of wool or of stonework and gold.

Internal strife troubles Shalmaneser's reign, and many of his conquests are lost.

Shalmaneser wages a two-year civil war around 828-826 to quash a rebellion by his son Ashurdaninpal.