The Al Sa'id can not agree on a successor to Said bin Suktan, who dies at sea on October 19, 1856.

Therefore, Oman's British protectors act, dividing the Al Bu Sa'idi empire between Sa'id's two sons: Oman proper comes under the rule of Thuwaini ibn Sa'id Al Sa'id, while Zanzibar, together with other Omani possessions in East Africa, goes to Majid ibn Sa'id Al Sa'id.

Thuwaini, with a weakened merchant fleet and no East African revenues, is left with little support.

Because of the different centers of power, the country becomes popularly known as Muscat and Oman.

The Middle East: 1864–1875 CE

Consolidation and International Influence in Lebanon

Between 1864 and 1875, Lebanon experiences stability under the new administrative structure known as the Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, established after the sectarian violence of 1860. Governed by a non-Lebanese Christian mutasarrif appointed by the Ottoman sultan with approval from European powers, Lebanon benefits from a relatively peaceful era. This governance, characterized by an administrative council representing Lebanon's diverse religious communities, provides a temporary cessation of internal strife. Many Lebanese emigrants continue to support their homeland economically through remittances from abroad, notably from Egypt, Africa, the Americas, and East Asia.

Lebanon also emerges as an intellectual hub during this period. Foreign missionaries establish educational institutions throughout the country, notably the American University of Beirut in 1866 and the French St. Joseph's University in 1875. A revitalized Arabic literary movement develops, supported by a prolific press and numerous publications.

Despite general calm, tensions simmer beneath the surface, exacerbated by ongoing European interference, particularly French backing of Christians and British interests in Druze regions, which continues to define Lebanon's political landscape.

Al Saud Authority and Regional Dynamics

Faisal ibn Turki Al Saud maintains firm control over central Arabia, continuing his strategic diplomacy with both Ottoman and British powers. Faisal’s rule sees the strengthening of Wahhabi principles, consolidating loyalty across Najd. Nonetheless, internal and external challenges persist, notably after Faisal's death in 1865, when power struggles among his sons Abd Allah, Abd ar Rahman, and Saud, along with Saud’s own sons, intermittently destabilize Riyadh. Faisal’s earlier establishment of alliances, such as the strategic marriage between his son Talal and Nura, daughter of the powerful Abd Allah ibn Rashid, helps manage these conflicts, preserving some stability and reinforcing the Al Saud dynasty's authority.

Qajar Iran under Foreign Pressure

Under Naser ad-Din Shah, Persia (Iran) continues facing significant pressure from British and Russian geopolitical ambitions, severely limiting Persian sovereignty. Russia solidifies its control over Iranian northern territories, compelling Iran to renounce claims on Central Asian regions through treaties like the Treaty of Paris in 1857. Britain actively safeguards its interests in Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf. Internally, Naser ad-Din Shah attempts modest modernization efforts, encouraged by reform-minded officials like Malkam Khan and prime minister Mirza Hosain Khan Moshir od Dowleh. These reforms, however, largely fail due to entrenched opposition from the bureaucracy, religious leadership, and ongoing external interference, resulting in persistent internal vulnerabilities.

Prosperity and British Influence in Oman

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi sustains Oman's maritime prosperity and strategic significance, particularly through commerce in Zanzibar and other East African territories. Following Said’s death in 1856, his territories are divided between his sons, with Thuwaini bin Said ruling Muscat and Oman, and Majid bin Said becoming Sultan of Zanzibar. Despite this division, British influence ensures continuity in commerce and stability within Oman itself. British-imposed maritime truces also remain effective, reducing piracy and fostering safer trade conditions along the Trucial Coast.

Stability and Growth in the Persian Gulf

The Al Thani family consolidates its authority in Qatar, bolstered by Wahhabi ideological alignment, strengthening independence from Bahraini influence. Simultaneously, the Al Nahyan in Abu Dhabi solidify control, benefiting from alliances with both Britain and Oman. The Persian Gulf emirates continue to prosper under British maritime protections, with distinct political and economic identities developing due to the region's improved stability.

Ottoman Reforms and Societal Changes in Iraq

Ottoman rule in Iraq experiences significant modernization under governor Midhat Pasha starting in 1869. His Tanzimat reforms reorganize administration, secularize education, and introduce new legal codes, helping create a more centralized and efficient governance structure. The TAPU land laws inadvertently transform tribal sheikhs into wealthy landowners, altering traditional tribal dynamics and fostering the growth of an urban-based Iraqi intelligentsia. The introduction of steamboats, telegraph lines, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 further integrates Iraq economically into global markets.

Russian Consolidation and Rising Nationalism in the Caucasus

Russia continues to consolidate its authority throughout the Caucasus, profoundly influencing Armenian and Georgian societies. Armenians benefit from educational and economic reforms, fostering heightened national awareness and cultural identity. Conversely, Georgian society faces intensified Russification, spurring resistance and nationalist movements among intellectuals and emerging urban classes. These divergent experiences underscore the complexities and tensions inherent in Russian rule.

Legacy of the Era

The years 1864 to 1875 witness transformative developments across the Middle East. Lebanon experiences stability under international oversight and intellectual renaissance; the Al Saud navigate complex internal dynamics; Persia struggles under persistent foreign pressure despite attempts at modernization; Oman maintains maritime prosperity through strategic divisions; Gulf emirates grow under British protection; Iraq undergoes significant Ottoman-led modernization; and Russian influence continues to shape nationalism in the Caucasus. These events collectively define the region's enduring cultural, economic, and political trajectories.

The sons of Sultan Sa'id bin Sultan Al-Busaid of the Empire of Oman had quarreled over the succession when their father died in 1856.

As a result of this struggle, the empire—through the mediation of the British Government under the Canning Award—had been divided in 1861 into two separate principalities: Zanzibar (with its East African dependencies), and Muscat and Oman.

Sa'id bin Sultan’s descendant Thuwaini ibn Said Al-Busaid rules Muscat and Oman; Mayid ibn Said Al-Busaid rules Zanzibar.

Thuwaini, the Al Bu Sa'id ruler of Muscat and Oman (as his truncated empire is now known), dies in 1866, rumored to have been killed by his own son, Salim bin Thuwaini, under whom the dynasty continues.

The dynasty is threatened, however, by the omnipresent challenge from the independent tribes of the interior who reject the authority of the sultan, recognizing the imam as the sole legitimate leader and pressing, by resorting to arms, for the restoration of the imamate.

Sayyid Majid bin Said Al-Busaid’s marriage has produced only one daughter, Sayyida Khanfora bint Majid (who will marry her cousin, the seventh Sultan).

As a consequence, Majid is succeeded as Sultan of Zanzibar in 1870 by his brother Barghash bin Said.

Majid bin Said had become Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman on the death of his father, Sayyid Said bin Sultan, but his accession had been contested.

Following the struggle over the accession to the position of Sultan of Oman, Zanzibar and Oman had been divided into two separate principalities, with Majid ruling Zanzibar and his older brother Thuwaini ruling Oman.

The sultans have developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite.

Ivory is a major trade good.

The archipelago, also known as the Spice Islands, is famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations are developed to grow them.

The archipelago's commerce gradually falls into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, whom Said bin Sultan had encouraged to settle on the islands.

During his fourteen-year reign as sultan, Majid has consolidated his power around the East African slave trade.

Malindi in Zanzibar City is East Africa's main port for the slave market between Africa and Asia (including the Middle East), and in the mid-nineteenth century as many as fifty thousand slaves have passed annually through the port.

Many are captives of Tippu Tib, a notorious Arab slave trader and ivory merchant.

Tib leads huge expeditions, some four thousand strong, into the African interior, where chiefs sell him their villagers for next to nothing.

These Tib uses to caravan ivory back to Zanzibar, then sells them in the slave market for large profits.

Tib has become one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and ten thousand slaves. (Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads", in a "Did You Know?" sidebar authored by Christy Ullrich, National Geographic)