Antiochus X Eusebes, the son of Antiochus Cyzicenus, evens the score in the Syrian civil war in 95 BCE,decisively defeating Seleucus VI and thus avenging the recent death of his father.

The epithets he takes tell much of his story: Eusebes (being a title of his father) and also Philopator (father-loving) both honor his father.

After that, he rules Antioch and its surroundings, fighting endlessly against the four brothers of Seleucus VI, the Nabataeans and the Parthian Empire.

Seleucid ruler Demetrius III, with the assistance of Ptolemy IX Lathyros, king of Egypt, recovers part of his father's Syrian dominions around 95 BCE, and holds his court at Damascus, whence he tries to enlarge his dominions.

Nicomedes had made himself master of Paphlagonia for a time.

After the deaths of his first wife and father-in-law, in order to have a claim on Cappadocia, Nicomedes had married his former mother-in-law as his second wife Laodice, who had fled to him when King Mithridates VI of Pontus (Laodice’s first brother) endeavored to annex the country.

With Laodice's two sons Ariarathes VII and Ariarathes VIII dead, Nicomedes III brings forward an impostor as a claimant to the throne; but the plot is detected.

The Roman Senate refuses to recognize the claim, and requires Nicomedes III to give up all pretensions to Cappadocia and to abandon Paphlagonia.

Tigranes, the son or brother of Artavasdos I of Armenia and a member of the dynasty founded in the early second century BCE by Artaxias, had been given as a hostage to the Parthian king Mithridates II.

He eventually purchases his freedom by ceding seventy valleys bordering on Media, in northwestern Iran, and in his mid-forties becomes king of Armenia in 95.

Quintus Mucius Scaevola, elected tribune in 106 BCE and aedile in 104 BCE, is elected consul in 95 BCE.

Together with his relative Lucius Licinius Crassus, he has a law (the Lex Licinia Mucia) passed in the senate in that denies Roman citizenship to certain groups within the Roman sphere of influence ("Italians" and "Latins").

The passage of this law is to be one of the major contributing factors to the Social War.

The foundation upon which Tigranes is to build his Empire is already in place when he comes to power, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxias I, and subsequent kings.

The mountains of Armenia, however, form natural borders between the different regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic nakharars have significant influence over the regions or provinces in which they are based.

This does not suit Tigranes, who wants to create a centralist empire.

He thus proceeds by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign.

He begins in 94 BCE by deposing Artanes, the last king of Armenian Sophene (east of the Euphrates River) and a descendant of Zariadres.

Tigranes marries Cleopatra, the daughter of Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus, in 94, and forms an alliance with that kingdom.

At the time, Tigranes is forty-six years old while she is only sixteen.

She is to play a decisive role in the life of Tigranes and all of Armenia.

Cleopatra will bear Tigranes three sons: Zariadres, Artavasdes II of Armenia, Tigranes and a daughter who will marry King Pacorus I of Parthia.

Dissatisfaction in the Roman province of Asia has given new hope to Mithridates VI of Pontus.

Ineffectively organized after annexation and corrupt in its cities' internal administration, it had soon been overrun with Italian businessmen and Roman tax collectors.

When the Senate realizes the danger, it sends its most distinguished jurist, Quintus Mucius Scaevola, who has just completed his consulate, on an unprecedented mission in 94 to reorganize Asia.

He takes with him as his senior officer.

Publius Rutilius Rufus—jurist, stoic philosopher, and former consul —whose consular main achievements concerned the discipline of the army and the introduction of an improved system of drill.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (93–82 BCE): Social War and Civil Conflict

The era 93–82 BCE witnesses a turbulent period within the Roman Republic, characterized by internal conflicts, profound social upheaval, and significant constitutional crises, leading to the destructive Social War and subsequent civil wars between rival political factions.

The Social War: Allies Rebel (90–88 BCE)

The Social War (also known as the Italian War or Marsic War) erupts in 90 BCE, fueled by longstanding grievances of Rome’s Italian allies (socii) over citizenship and political rights. The Italian allies, including the Marsi, Samnites, and other central and southern Italian peoples, form a federation and revolt against Roman domination, presenting one of the most severe internal threats Rome has faced.

Rome initially suffers severe defeats as the well-trained and highly motivated Italian forces challenge Roman supremacy, threatening the cohesion of the Republic itself. In response, Rome hastily grants citizenship to loyal communities, undermining rebel unity. By 88 BCE, Roman forces, under commanders such as Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, successfully suppress the rebellion. Although militarily victorious, Rome is forced to concede citizenship to nearly all Italian allies, fundamentally transforming Roman society and politics.

Sulla's First Civil War (88–87 BCE)

In the immediate aftermath of the Social War, Rome plunges into further conflict. The political rivalry between Gaius Marius, the champion of popular causes and military reform, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, representing conservative senatorial interests, escalates dramatically. When Sulla is granted command of the lucrative and prestigious war against Mithridates VI of Pontus, Marius successfully manipulates political channels to transfer this command to himself.

Refusing to relinquish power, Sulla responds by an unprecedented march on Rome in 88 BCE, capturing the city and purging his opponents. This dramatic action triggers Sulla's first civil war against Marius and his supporters. After consolidating control, Sulla departs for the East to engage Mithridates, allowing Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna to retake Rome and instigate brutal reprisals against Sullan supporters.

Sulla's Second Civil War (83–82 BCE)

Upon concluding his campaign in the East, Sulla returns to Italy in 83 BCE, initiating the second civil war. Fierce battles unfold throughout Italy, Sicily, and parts of Africa as Sulla confronts Marius’s faction, now led by Gaius Marius the Younger following his father's death. The decisive conflict occurs at the Battle of the Colline Gate in 82 BCE, where Sulla achieves a bloody victory, securing absolute control over Rome.

Sulla's Dictatorship and Constitutional Reforms

With victory secured, Sulla assumes the extraordinary office of dictator without term limits, initiating a series of conservative constitutional reforms aimed at strengthening the Senate and curbing popular power. He institutes proscriptions—a policy of legalized mass executions and property confiscations—to eliminate political enemies and replenish depleted state funds.

Cultural Developments: The Second Style of Roman Wall Painting

Parallel to the political upheavals, Roman art flourishes, exemplified by advancements in wall painting. Early in the first century BCE, Roman artists perfect the Second Style, also known as the architectural style, characterized by sophisticated painted illusions of marble paneling, columns, and expansive landscapes or cityscapes, often integrating mythological narratives.

Legacy and Implications

The era 93–82 BCE profoundly reshapes the Roman Republic, with the Social War permanently altering the relationship between Rome and its Italian allies, extending citizenship and altering political dynamics. The civil wars, driven by the rivalry between Marius and Sulla, demonstrate the Republic’s susceptibility to charismatic military leaders wielding personal armies, further undermining the traditional republican system and setting a dangerous precedent toward autocratic governance.

The small states of the Malay Peninsula, greatly influenced by Indian culture, establish trade relations with China and India in the first century BCE.