The socioeconomic and political foundations of the modern Egyptian state are laid during the nineteenth century.

The transformation of Egypt begins with the integration of the economy into the world capitalist system with the result that by the end of the century Egypt will have become an exporter of raw materials to Europe and an importer of European manufactured goods.

The transformation of Egypt leads to the emergence of a ruling elite composed of large landowners of Turco-Circassian origin and the creation of a class of medium-sized landowners of Egyptian origin who play an increasingly important role in the political and economic life of the country.

In the countryside, peasants are dispossessed because of debt, and many landless peasants migrate to the cities where they join  the swelling ranks of the under- and unemployed.

In the cities, a professional middle class emerges composed of civil servants, lawyers, teachers, and technicians.

Finally, Western ideas and cultural forms are introduced into the country.