Tigranes, taking the ancient Achaemenid title “king of kings,” has built a new royal city, Tigranocerta, on the borders of Armenia and Mesopotamia (the actual site is disputed, but seems to have been located south of present Dyarbakir), where he accumulates all his wealth and to which he has transplanted the inhabitants of twelve Greek towns of Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Syria.

Pompey serves in 70 BCE with Crassus as partner.

His meteoric rise to the consulship is unprecedented; his tactics offend the traditionalist nobility whose values he claims to share and defend.

He had left them no option but to allow his consulship.

Crassus and Pompey undermine the Sullan system by obtaining modification of Sulla's laws to their advantage.

They help to restore powers to the tribunes, revive the dormant censorship, and permit reform of the jury courts.

Verres returns to Rome in 70, and Cicero, at the request of the Sicilians, prosecutes him in the same year: the prosecution speeches will later be published as the Verrine Orations.

Verres has entrusted his defense to the most eminent of Roman advocates, Quintus Hortensius, and he has the sympathy and support of several of the leading Roman patricians.

The court is composed exclusively of senators, some of whom may have been his friends.

The presiding judge, the city praetor, Manius Acilius Glabrio, is a thoroughly honest man, however, and his assessors are at least not accessible to bribery.

Verres vainly tries to get the trial postponed until 69 when his friend Quintus Caecilius Metellus Caprarius will be the presiding judge.

Hortensius tries two successive tactics to delay the trial.

The first is trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence.

When that fails, the defense then looks to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be scarce time for the trial to continue before Glabrio's term was up and the new and more malleable judge would be installed.

Cicero opens the case in August, however, and vows to short-circuit the plans by taking advantage of an opportunity to change the format of the trial to bring evidence and witnesses up much sooner, and opens his case with a short and blistering speech.

The effect of the first brief speech is so overwhelming that Hortensius refuses to reply, and recommends his client leave the country.

Before the expiration of the nine days allowed for the prosecution, Verres is on his way to Massilia (today Marseille), where he will live in exile until 43 BCE, when he will then be proscribed by Mark Antony, apparently for refusing to surrender some art treasures that Antony coveted.

Julius Caesar, lacking means since his inheritance had been confiscated, has acquired a modest house in a lower-class neighborhood of Rome and turned to legal advocacy.

On his return to Rome, he had been elected military tribune, a first step in a political career.

He has become known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.

The Pannonian Boii attested in later sources, contrary to the interpretation of the classical writers, are not simply the remnants of those who had fled from Italy, but rather another division of the tribe, which had settled there much earlier.

The burial rites of the Italian Boii show many similarities with contemporary Bohemia, such as inhumation, which was uncommon with the other Cisalpine Gauls, or the absence of the typically western Celtic torcs.

This makes it much more likely that the Cisalpine Boii had actually originated from Bohemia rather than the other way round.

Having migrated to Italy from north of the Alps, some of the defeated Celts simply moved back to their kinsfolk.

Other parts of the Boii had remained closer to their traditional home, and settled in the Slovak and Hungarian lowlands by the Danube and the Mura, with a center at Bratislava.

Around 60 BCE, they clash with the rising power of the Dacians under their king Burebista and are defeated.

The Middle East: 69–58 BCE

Roman Expansion and the Subjugation of the Caucasus

Between 69 and 58 BCE, Rome continues its assertive expansion into the Near East, notably through General Pompey the Great, who significantly reshapes the region's political landscape following the prolonged Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BCE).

In 65 BCE, Pompey undertakes the Georgian campaign as a direct consequence of Rome's victory in the Mithridatic Wars. Having successfully subdued the Kingdom of Pontus and significantly weakened the Kingdom of Armenia, Pompey directs Roman ambitions toward the strategic kingdoms of the Caucasus. Rome's interests lie particularly in the Caucasian Iberian Kingdom, ruled by King Artag (Artoces), who had supported Pontus against Rome. Pompey's predecessor, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, had conducted earlier military campaigns from 74 to 66 BCE, laying critical groundwork for Pompey's subsequent success.

Pompey's decisive victory against the Armenians and Pontians in 66 BCE forces the resilient Mithridates VI into exile in Colchis. Following this, Roman attention intensifies toward Iberia (Caucasian Iberia) and neighboring Albania. After initial resistance, King Artag eventually capitulates, submitting to Rome by delivering his children as hostages and agreeing to a treaty that reduces Iberia to a vassal status, henceforth becoming a "friend and ally" of Rome.

Pompey next advances towards Colchis, systematically subduing key fortresses and local tribes through a combination of tactical diplomacy and military might. Upon reaching the port of Phasis, Pompey coordinates with the Roman fleet, instructing them to pursue and capture Mithridates VI, effectively neutralizing the threat from this persistent adversary. With the subjugation of these strategic territories completed, Pompey prepares to return triumphantly to Rome, having significantly solidified Roman influence throughout the Near East and the Caucasus region.

This period, therefore, from 69 to 58 BCE, marks a critical phase in the expansion and consolidation of Roman power in the Middle East, dramatically altering the regional balance of power and laying the foundations for sustained Roman hegemony.

Pompey's Georgian campaign, which takes place in 65 BCE, is a consequence of the Mithridatic Wars.

Rome seeks to expand its borders and establish itself as a hegemon in West Asia.

After mostly subjugating the Kingdom of Pontus and the Kingdom of Armenia, the Romans turn to the Caucasian Iberian Kingdom, whose king Artag, or Artoces, is an ally of Pontus.

Roman General Lucullus has led the campaigns from 74 BCE to 66 BCE, when the Roman Senate determines that he is to be succeeded by Pompey.

This same year, Pompey effectively defeats the Armenians and Pontians, with their king Mithridates escaping to Colchis.

After this, Roman attentions became increasingly focused on Iberia and Albania.

Artag eventually submits, gives his children as hostages, and signs a peace, under which the Kingdom of Iberia is to be a friend and ally of the Roman Republic as a vassal.

Pompey next heads for Colchis, subjugating the main fortresses and various local peoples on the way with both cunning diplomacy and the use of force.

He meets up with the Roman Fleet in Phasis and commands them to capture Mithridates, while he returns to Rome.

Rome has gradually incorporated Greek territory into its empire over a period of about two hundred and fifty years.

The Greek and Roman worlds each will change significantly because of the resultant interaction.

The Romans bring order to the region, and their inventive genius will produce lasting monuments.

Among the fragile Hellenistic kingdoms, Macedonia is now a mere province of Rome, Ptolemaic Egypt is a Roman client state, and the formerly mighty Seleucid empire is now confined to the provinces of Syria and eastern Cilicia, and even those are under tenuous control in 64 BCE, when the Romans finally conquer the kingdom.

Near East (69–58 BCE): Jewish Expansion and Roman Ascendancy

Between 69 and 58 BCE, Jewish influence notably expands, both within Palestine and throughout the Diaspora. Scholarly estimates suggest the Jewish population reaches substantial proportions during this era, ranging from around seven hundred thousand to possibly five million in Palestine, with an additional two to five million in the Diaspora. These numbers reflect not only natural population growth but also a significant increase in proselytes to Judaism, drawn by the ethical rigor and spiritual distinctiveness of Jewish practices.

Under Hasmonean rule, particularly since the conquests of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), the region of Edom (Idumea) had been subdued, with its inhabitants compelled to adopt Judaism. The integration of Edomites into Judean society proves successful, and by the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, Edomite figures rise to prominent political positions. Antipater, son of Antipas, governor of Edom, emerges as a pivotal political figure and advisor to Hyrcanus II, forging influential ties with the expanding Roman Republic.

Rome's direct involvement in the region becomes decisive in 63 BCE, when Roman forces under Pompey the Greatintervene in Judean internal conflicts. This Roman intervention marks the effective end of Jewish independence, as Judea becomes subject to Roman oversight, a status from which it does not recover throughout Roman imperial rule.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 69 to 58 BCE signifies a turning point, marked by the considerable growth of the Jewish population and the critical introduction of Roman political dominance. The alliances and accommodations forged during this time decisively shape Judea's subsequent history, laying the foundation for its transformation into a significant, albeit contested, province within the expansive Roman world.

Proselytes to Judaism, though not constituting a class, have become increasingly numerous both in Palestine and especially in the Diaspora (the Jews living beyond Palestine).

Scholarly estimates of the Jewish population of this age range from seven hundred thousand to five million in Palestine and from two million to five million in the Diaspora, with the prevailing opinion being that about one-tenth of the population of the Mediterranean world at the beginning of the Christian Era was Jewish.

Such numbers represent a considerable increase from previous eras and must have included large numbers of proselytes.

During the time of the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus (134-104 BCE), Judea had conquered Edom (Idumea) and forced the Edomites to convert to Judaism.

The Edomites had been gradually integrated into the Judean nation, and some of them have reached high ranking positions.

In the days of Alexander Jannaeus, an Edomite named Antipas had been appointed governor of Edom.

His son Antipater, father of Herod the Great, is the chief adviser to Hasmonean Hyrcanus II and manages to establish a good relationship with the Roman Republic, who at this time (63 BCE) extends its influence over the region, following the conquest of Syria and intervention in a civil war in Judea.

The Jews soon lose their independence to Rome, never to regain it while the Romans maintain their empire.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (69–58 BCE): Conspiracy and Political Crisis in the Late Republic

The era 69–58 BCE is characterized by escalating political tensions, a significant conspiracy against the Roman state, and the continuing fragility of Republican governance.

Catilinarian Conspiracy (63 BCE)

The most notable event of this period is the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy, led by the disgruntled senator Lucius Sergius Catilina, known commonly as Catiline. Frustrated by repeated political setbacks, Catiline assembles a diverse coalition, including indebted aristocrats, disaffected veterans, and dissatisfied plebeians. The conspiracy aims to overthrow the existing senatorial elite and redistribute political and economic power.

In 63 BCE, Catiline's plot is dramatically exposed by the renowned orator and consul, Marcus Tullius Cicero, whose powerful denunciations before the Senate (the "Catilinarian Orations") force Catiline to flee Rome. Cicero's actions lead to the arrest and execution of several co-conspirators, effectively quelling the immediate threat but simultaneously deepening political divisions within the Republic.

Political Repercussions

The suppression of the Catilinarian Conspiracy heightens the polarization between the optimates, who support the existing power structure, and the populares, who advocate broader reforms and challenge senatorial dominance. Cicero, initially hailed as a savior of the Republic, later faces criticism and hostility for his severe treatment of Roman citizens without a formal trial.

The lingering tensions from this episode contribute to the ongoing erosion of the Republican framework, setting the stage for the ascendancy of powerful military figures such as Julius Caesar and Pompey.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Despite political turmoil, Roman culture continues to flourish. Architectural innovations persist, particularly in urban centers, reflecting continued Hellenistic influence and Roman adaptation. The era witnesses ongoing enhancements to public buildings, temples, and monuments, reinforcing Rome's cultural and architectural prestige in the Mediterranean world.

Legacy of the Era

The period 69–58 BCE underscores critical vulnerabilities within the Roman Republic, emphasizing the precarious balance between senatorial authority and popular dissent. The Catilinarian Conspiracy serves as a vivid illustration of internal strife and foreshadows greater upheavals to come, ultimately paving the way for the rise of autocratic rule and the final collapse of Republican governance.

The second Catilinarian conspiracy is a supposed plot, devised by Roman senator Lucius Sergius Catilina, known in English as Catiline, with the help of a group of aristocrats and disaffected veterans, to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate.

Cicero’s exposure of the plot in 63 BCE forces Catiline to flee from Rome.