Southwest Europe (1828–1971 CE)

Nationhood, Civil War, and the Making of Modern Iberia

Geography & Environmental Context

Southwest Europe comprises two fixed subregions:

• Mediterranean Southwest Europe — Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Malta, southeastern Spain, and the Balearic Islands.

• Atlantic Southwest Europe — northern Spain and central to northern Portugal, including Lisbon, the Tagus Valley, and the Cantabrian Mountains.

Anchors include the Apennines, the Po and Ebro valleys, the Italian Peninsula’s volcanic south, the Tagus, Douro, and Guadalquivir rivers, and key coastal and urban centers—Rome, Naples, Milan, Barcelona, Valencia, Lisbon, and Porto. The region bridges the Atlantic and Mediterranean, uniting maritime trade routes, mountain frontiers, and deep agricultural basins that have long sustained dense populations and layered civilizations.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

A Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters dominated much of the south, while the northwest’s Atlantic façade received abundant rainfall. Deforestation and soil exhaustion from centuries of cultivation gave way to reforestation and terracing programs in the 19th century. Earthquakes occasionally struck southern Italy and Portugal’s coast. By the mid-20th century, irrigation and dam projects modernized agriculture, while industrialization, urban air pollution, and rural depopulation reshaped landscapes.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture: Grain, olives, vines, and citrus remained staples; the 19th century saw agrarian reforms and consolidation under liberal monarchies. Mechanization and fertilizers expanded yields by mid-century, but sharecropping and land inequality persisted in southern Italy, Sicily, and Spain.

• Urbanization: Lisbon, Barcelona, Milan, Rome, and Naples grew as administrative and industrial centers. Northern Italy industrialized rapidly after unification, while southern regions lagged.

• Migration: Seasonal and transatlantic migration (to the Americas and later to northern Europe) served as economic safety valves. After WWII, internal migration filled factory towns in northern Italy and Catalonia.

• Fishing and maritime trade: Coastal economies thrived on shipbuilding, sardine and tuna fisheries, and maritime commerce linking the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins.

Technology & Material Culture

Railways (Lisbon–Madrid, Milan–Turin, Naples–Rome) and telegraphs in the 19th century integrated national markets. Industrialization centered on textiles, steel, and shipbuilding, while southern agrarian zones remained semifeudal. After WWII, infrastructure and consumer industries (automobiles, household goods) expanded under European reconstruction aid. Architecture ranged from neoclassical state projects to fascist monumentalism and postwar modernism. Artistic modernism flourished: Gaudí’s Catalan designs, Marinetti’s Futurism, and Morandi’s minimalist painting exemplified divergent paths to modernity.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Maritime corridors: The Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts connected ports like Genoa, Barcelona, and Lisbon to imperial routes across Africa and the Americas.

• Rail and road networks: Bound the interior to ports; after 1950, highways and airports tied Iberia and Italy to Western Europe’s tourism boom.

• Labor migration: Italians and Portuguese joined transatlantic migrations to Brazil, Argentina, and the U.S.; by the 1960s, many worked in France, Germany, and Switzerland.

• Tourism routes: The French and Italian Rivieras, Spanish Balearics, and Portuguese Algarve became global tourist zones after WWII.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Romantic nationalism merged with Catholic revival and liberal reform.

• Italy: Giuseppe Verdi’s operas and Garibaldi’s campaigns symbolized unification (Risorgimento). Postwar cinema—Rossellini, De Sica, Fellini—portrayed social reconstruction.

• Spain: Writers and artists such as Goya, Unamuno, and Picasso reflected political trauma and creative rebellion; Flamenco and Andalusian folk arts embodied enduring regional identities.

• Portugal: Fado captured nostalgia under authoritarian rule; poets like Fernando Pessoa gave voice to existential modernism.

• Malta and the Balearics: Maritime cultures blended Catholic ritual, seafaring craft, and multilingual exchange.
  Catholicism remained culturally dominant, yet anticlerical movements and republicanism spurred secular education and reform.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Irrigation and terrace maintenance stabilized fragile mountain agriculture; coastal marshes were drained; reforestation curbed erosion. Postwar hydroelectric and dam projects (notably on the Tagus and Po) modernized water and power supply. Cooperative farming and later Common Market integration improved productivity. Rural depopulation and emigration altered traditional village structures but relieved demographic pressure on marginal lands.

Political & Military Shocks

• Liberal revolutions: Spain and Portugal alternated between monarchy and republic amid 19th-century liberal uprisings.

• Italian Unification (Risorgimento, 1848–71) created a single kingdom under Victor Emmanuel II; regional disparities persisted.

• Republics and dictatorships:

  • Spain’s First Republic (1873–74) failed amid instability; the Second Republic (1931–39) collapsed in the Spanish Civil War, leading to Francisco Franco’s dictatorship (1939–75).

  • Portugal’s Estado Novo, founded by António Salazar (1933), maintained corporatist authoritarianism until the Carnation Revolution (1974).

  • Italy’s Fascist regime under Mussolini (1922–43) joined the Axis powers; postwar reconstruction created a republic (1946).

• World Wars: Italy fought on both sides; Spain and Portugal remained neutral in WWII but served as refuges and transit corridors.

• Decolonization: Italy lost Libya, Eritrea, and Somaliland; Portugal clung to its African colonies; Spain withdrew from Morocco’s protectorate (1956).

• Cold War: Italy and Portugal joined NATO (1949); Spain aligned with the U.S. (1953 agreements) despite Franco’s isolation.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, Southwest Europe traversed the arc from agrarian monarchies and fragmented kingdoms to industrial, authoritarian, and democratic states. The Risorgimento, Iberian revolutions, and postwar transitions forged modern nations marked by stark contrasts—prosperous industrial norths and impoverished rural souths, deep religiosity and militant secularism, dictatorship and democracy. The rebuilding after WWII brought integration into Western alliances and the first wave of tourism-led growth. By 1971, the region—its olive terraces, factory belts, and crowded ports—stood as both the southern pillar of Western Europe and a crossroads of lingering empires and emerging modern identities.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1828–1971 CE): Nation-Building, Dictatorship, and the Reinvention of Mediterranean Economies

Geography & Environmental Context

Mediterranean Southwest Europe encompasses Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Malta, southeastern Spain (Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia’s southern coast, and the Balearic Islands). Anchors include the Po Valley and northern Italian plain, the Apennines, Mount Vesuvius and Etna, the Sicilian interior, the Ebro and Guadalquivir valleys, the Balearic archipelagos, and Malta’s limestone plateaus. This is a region of rugged Mediterranean coastlines, volcanic soils, and irrigated plains that supported agriculture, industry, and rapidly growing urban centers such as Rome, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Palma de Mallorca, and Valletta.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The climate remained characteristically Mediterranean: hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Drought cycles in Andalusia and Sicily produced periodic crop failures in the 19th century, while devastating floods affected northern Italy (notably the Adige flood of 1882). Volcanic eruptions at Etna and Vesuvius (most famously 1906 and 1944) threatened nearby settlements. Reforestation and irrigation works expanded in the 20th century, particularly under Fascist Italy’s land reclamation schemes (Pontine Marshes) and Spain’s Franco-era irrigation projects.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture:

  • Italy: Wheat in the south; olives, vines, and citrus across peninsular and insular zones; dairy and maize in the Po Valley.

  • Spain: Wheat, citrus, rice (Valencia), and olives; Andalusia’s latifundia coexisted with smallholders.

  • Malta: Dryland farming of wheat and barley with reliance on imported food.

• Industry:

  • Italy’s “industrial triangle” (Milan–Turin–Genoa) became Europe’s key steel, textile, and automotive hub.

  • Barcelona developed as Spain’s textile and industrial center.

  • Naples, Palermo, Andalusian cities lagged behind, locked in agrarian economies.

• Urban growth: Rome became Italy’s capital (1871); Barcelona and Valencia expanded port industry; Valletta was transformed by British naval dominance. By the mid-20th century, rapid urbanization created sprawling suburbs and modernist housing.

Technology & Material Culture

• Transport: Railways (Piedmont, Catalonia, Andalusia, Naples–Rome) and modern ports transformed connectivity in the 19th century. After WWII, motorways and airports (Milan Malpensa, Rome Fiumicino, Barcelona El Prat, Palma de Mallorca) anchored tourism.

• Industry & energy: Coal in Asturias and Sardinia; hydroelectric in the Alps and Pyrenees; Fiat (Turin) symbolized Italian industrial growth; postwar petrochemicals reshaped Sicilian and Andalusian coasts.

• Everyday life: Rural material culture—stone farmhouses, terraced vineyards, hand looms—gave way to urban consumer goods: radios, Vespa scooters, Fiat cars, and televisions by the 1960s.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Migration:

  • 19th century: Italians emigrated en masse to the Americas (Argentina, Brazil, the U.S.), and Spaniards to Cuba, Mexico, and Argentina.

  • 20th century: Postwar flows sent workers to France, Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium; remittances fueled local economies.

• Colonial ties:

  • Spain retained colonies in Africa until mid-20th century; Italy pursued expansion (Libya, East Africa, Albania, Dodecanese).

  • Malta, as a British fortress colony, was central in Mediterranean naval strategy until independence (1964).

• Tourism: Began in the 19th century with aristocratic visits to Naples, Sicily, and the Balearics; exploded in the 1950s–60s with charter flights to Mallorca, Ibiza, Costa del Sol, Amalfi, and Capri.

• War corridors: Italian unification wars (Risorgimento), Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), both World Wars, and Cold War naval deployments in Malta all militarized the region.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Nationalism: Italy’s Risorgimento (Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour) culminated in unification (1861–1871). Spain oscillated between monarchy, republic, dictatorship, and Franco’s authoritarianism (1939–1975). Malta blended Catholic and British influences, asserting independence mid-century.

• Arts & literature: Italian Romanticism (Verdi), Futurism, and postwar neorealist cinema (Rossellini, De Sica). Spanish cultural figures (Goya’s late works, Gaudí’s Barcelona architecture, Picasso, Miró, Lorca) shaped global modernism.

• Religion & tradition: Catholicism dominated, with papal authority central in Italy; local fiestas, processions, and Mediterranean folk traditions persisted.

• Tourist imagery: Romantic depictions of Capri, Amalfi, and Andalusia, later mass-marketed as sun-and-sea resorts, reshaped cultural perception of the Mediterranean.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Agrarian reform: Land reforms in Italy (1950s–60s) and Spain (Franco’s agrarian policy) redistributed holdings, though inequality persisted.

• Irrigation: Expansion of canals and reservoirs modernized citrus and rice production in Valencia and Sicily.

• Terracing: Maintained soil fertility in hilly regions; mechanization after 1950 reduced reliance on labor-intensive terrace farming.

• Urban resilience: Cities devastated in WWII (Naples, Rome, Barcelona, Valletta) were rebuilt with modernist architecture and new transport systems.

Political & Military Shocks

• Italy: Unification (1861–71); Fascist rule (1922–43); WWII defeat and transition to republic (1946).

• Spain: Carlist Wars; colonial loss in 1898; Civil War (1936–39) leading to Franco’s dictatorship; neutrality in WWII; tourism-led development by the 1960s.

• Malta: Great Siege memories lived on under British rule; WWII bombardments earned it the George Cross; independence achieved in 1964.

• Allied & Axis strategy: Mediterranean ports and islands were pivotal in both World Wars, especially Sicily, Malta, and Gibraltar’s approaches.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, Mediterranean Southwest Europe moved from agrarian economies under monarchy and empire toward industrialization, dictatorship, and postwar integration. Italy unified and industrialized unevenly, its north surging ahead while the south lagged. Spain suffered civil war and Francoist repression, yet by the 1960s pivoted toward mass tourism. Malta endured as a fortress colony, emerging into independence. Across the region, emigration and remittances provided lifelines, while the rise of modern tourism, consumer culture, and European integration marked the final transformation of this Mediterranean arc into a keystone of 20th-century Europe.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1864–1875 CE): Turbulent Transitions and National Consolidations

The era from 1864 to 1875 CE across Mediterranean Southwest Europe—including the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is characterized by significant political realignments, national consolidations, cultural developments, and socio-political upheaval.

Completion of Italian Unification and the "Roman Question"

Italian unification nears completion during this period, prominently marked by the final annexation of Rome in 1870. When France withdraws its protective garrisons from Rome amidst the Franco-Prussian War, Piedmont-led Italian forces occupy the city after minimal resistance by papal troops. Pope Pius IX retreats to the Vatican, becoming a self-proclaimed "prisoner in the Vatican." Although the newly established Italian government guarantees papal sovereignty within Vatican walls, the pope refuses to acknowledge Italy’s authority over Rome. The "Roman Question"—the unresolved dispute over temporal power and church-state relations—persists as a significant political issue until 1929.

Following Rome’s annexation, Victor Emmanuel II moves Italy’s capital permanently from Florence to Rome in 1871, symbolically concluding the Risorgimento. The former papal residence, the Quirinal Palace, becomes the official royal palace for Italy’s monarchy.

Spain: The Revolution of 1868 and the Bourbon Restoration

Spain endures dramatic political shifts beginning with the Revolution of 1868, leading to the abdication of Queen Isabella II. Instability follows as various forms of governance rapidly succeed each other:

• A brief period of Liberal Monarchy (1870–1873) under Amadeo I of Savoy, who faces isolation and abdicates after his short, ineffective reign.

• The tumultuous First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) attempts federal decentralization but collapses quickly amid regional rebellions and internal chaos.

• A military intervention facilitates the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1875 under Alfonso XII, who, trained at Britain’s Sandhurst Military Academy, promises stability, proclaiming himself a "Spaniard, Catholic, and Liberal."

The political instability highlights divisions between Moderate liberals advocating constitutional monarchy and Progressives favoring broader democratic reforms, laying the foundation for enduring tensions within Spanish politics.

Andorra's Reforms and Economic Progress

In 1866, Andorra undergoes significant political reform led by the influential syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit. The aristocratic oligarchy is replaced by the Council General, which modernizes governance with broader electoral representation. This New Reform (Nova Reforma) ratified by Andorra’s Co-Princes strengthens national identity and economic modernization, ushering in infrastructure projects, hotels, telegraph lines, and nascent tourism, setting the stage for future prosperity.

Malta: British Colonial Stability

Under British rule since 1814, Malta experiences ongoing infrastructural developments, reinforcing its strategic role in Mediterranean geopolitics. Although colonial tensions occasionally arise, Malta’s economy continues to stabilize and flourish, primarily driven by its maritime and naval significance to British imperial interests.

Cultural Continuity and Romanticism

Culturally, Romantic influences remain strong, particularly in Italy, where Giuseppe Verdi’s operas continue to embody nationalistic fervor and cultural pride. Romantic ideals permeate artistic expression across the region, emphasizing emotional intensity, historical themes, and national identities, thereby enriching Mediterranean Southwest Europe's cultural landscape.

Conclusion: Political Realignments and National Identity

The era from 1864 to 1875 CE signifies critical transitions in Mediterranean Southwest Europe, marked by Italy’s final steps towards unification, Spain’s turbulent experimentation with governance, Andorra’s political reforms, and Malta’s strategic stabilization. These developments reshape the region’s political landscape and national identities, setting the stage for subsequent historical dynamics

The Restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy: Alfonso XII (r. 1875–1885)

The Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1875 with remarkable ease, following a pronunciamiento by a Spanish brigadier calling for the return of Alfonso XII, the son of Isabella II. Educated in Britain and trained at Sandhurst, Alfonso was widely regarded as a capable and pragmatic ruler. His ascension was welcomed with a sense of relief, even among some former republicans, who saw his reign as a stabilizing force after years of political turmoil.

Alfonso XII: A Monarch of Stability

• A Spaniard, a Catholic, and a Liberal

  • Alfonso positioned himself as a unifying figure, declaring his identity as a "Spaniard, Catholic, and Liberal."
  • His leadership sought to balance conservative and liberal forces, reassuring both monarchists and moderate reformers.

• Military Support and Political Stability

  • Having been a cadet at Sandhurst when summoned to the throne, Alfonso maintained strong ties with the army, which had withdrawn from direct political intervention under the new regime.
  • The restored monarchy benefited from a stable and popular civilian government, reducing the likelihood of further military interference in politics.

• Securing Conservative Support

  • Alfonso ensured the monarchy’s alliance with the Catholic Church by constitutionally confirming its official status, a move that solidified conservative backing.

Alfonso XII’s reign ushered in a period of relative stability, marking the beginning of the Restoration era (1875–1931), during which Spain operated under a constitutional monarchy with a rotating system of government between the dominant political factions.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1864–1875): Liberal Revolutions, Industrial Expansion, and Regional Turmoil

Between 1864 and 1875, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—experienced renewed political upheaval, significant economic transformation, and growing regional tensions. This period was shaped by revolutionary changes in Spain culminating in the short-lived First Spanish Republic, continuing industrial expansion, increased labor activism, and intensified regional cultural movements, reflecting the era's broader European liberal trends.

Political and Military Developments

Spain: Revolution, Republic, and Restoration

• In 1868, the Glorious Revolution overthrew Queen Isabella II, ushering in a period of intense political experimentation and instability.

• Following the brief reign of Amadeo I (1870–1873), Spain established its First Republic in 1873, characterized by political turmoil and decentralized federalist aspirations, influencing regional politics significantly.

• Persistent instability, Carlist insurrections in the Basque Country and Navarre (Third Carlist War, 1872–1876), and republican factionalism led to the Republic’s collapse in 1874, leading to the Bourbon Restoration under Alfonso XII (1874–1885).

Portugal: Stability Amidst Regionalism

• Portugal maintained relative political stability under the ongoing Regeneration period led by Prime Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo. Moderate liberal governments continued infrastructural modernization and economic reforms.

• Northern Portuguese regions, notably Porto, Braga, and Coimbra, experienced limited political unrest compared to Spain, benefiting from sustained economic and infrastructural improvements.

Economic Developments: Industrialization and Trade Expansion

Industrial Growth in Northern Spain

• Economic expansion continued robustly, particularly in the Basque Country. Bilbao became Spain’s primary industrial center for iron mining and steel production, significantly modernizing its industries and infrastructure.

• Cantabria, particularly Santander, flourished through maritime trade and commerce, increasingly connecting with British and European markets.

Portuguese Economic Diversification and Maritime Growth

• Northern Portugal, especially Porto, Braga, and Guimarães, diversified economically through expanded textile manufacturing, wine exports (Port wine), and emerging industries like glass and ceramics production.

• Railways expanded further, integrating Porto and Lisbon closely with international trading networks, strengthening Portugal’s economic stability and growth.

Social and Urban Developments

Urbanization and Social Inequalities

• Industrial and commercial growth accelerated urbanization dramatically in Bilbao, Porto, Santander, and Vigo. This rapid expansion intensified socioeconomic disparities, creating pronounced working-class neighborhoods characterized by poverty and overcrowding.

• Labor movements became increasingly visible, with workers in Bilbao’s steel industries, Vigo’s maritime trade, and Porto’s textile factories advocating labor rights, fair wages, and improved working conditions, resulting in numerous strikes and protests.

Rural Poverty and Emigration

• Persistent rural stagnation, especially in Galicia, Asturias, and northern Castile-León, continued driving substantial emigration to the Americas, notably Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and Cuba, reshaping demographic structures and regional economies significantly.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Regional Cultural Revivals and Autonomy Movements

• Regional cultural identities strengthened substantially. Galician cultural movements flourished through literature, language revival, and folklore, promoting a distinctive Galician identity.

• Basque nationalism and cultural revival intensified, particularly influenced by political instability and Carlist wars. Cultural organizations actively promoted Basque language preservation (Euskara), literature, and folklore, laying foundations for later political nationalism.

• Northern Portuguese cultural institutions continued promoting Romantic nationalism, emphasizing historical heritage, Portuguese identity, and literary traditions prominently in cities like Porto and Coimbra.

Persistent Influence of Catholicism

• Catholicism maintained a central social and cultural role across northern Spain and Portugal, providing stability amidst political turmoil. The Church remained influential in educational and social institutions, particularly in rural regions, sustaining traditional values and community cohesion.

Legacy and Significance

The years 1864–1875 were pivotal for Atlantic Southwest Europe, characterized by political upheaval, rapid industrial expansion, intensified labor movements, and burgeoning regional identities. Spain's revolutionary turmoil and the brief republican experiment profoundly impacted regional politics, while Portugal maintained relative stability, experiencing continued modernization and economic diversification. Increased urbanization, labor activism, and significant cultural revival movements in Galicia, the Basque Country, and northern Portugal underscored deepening regional identities, significantly shaping the region's subsequent political, economic, and cultural trajectories.

Liberal army oligarchs led by Marshal Francisco Serrano and Progressive conspirators behind Juna Prim plot revolution in Spain.

Isabella II has spent the past twenty-five years attempting to impose despotic rule on an increasingly liberal-minded nation.

During Spain’s Moderate Era, which began with Isabella’s majority in 1843, several military men have become prominent in party leadership positions and the government has adopted three more constitutions.

Socialist ideas have begun to circulate and peasant anarchism has begun to attract adherents.

O'Donnell's death on November 6, 1867, in Biarritz had deprived Isabella of one of her strongest allies.

Ramón María Narváez, another of Isabella's staunchest supporters, dies on April 23.

The agreements made by Liberals and republican exiles abroad at Ostend in 1866 and Brussels in 1867 have laid the framework for a major uprising, this time not merely to replace the Prime Minister with a Liberal, but to overthrow Isabella herself, whom Spanish liberals and republicans have begun to see as the source of Spain's inefficacy.

Her continual vacillation between liberal and conservative quarters has, by 1868, outraged the moderates, the progressives and the members of the Unión Liberal, and enabled a front that crosses party lines.

Leopoldo O'Donnell's death in 1867 had caused the Unión Liberal to unravel; many of its supporters, who had crossed party lines to create the party initially, join he growing movement to overthrow Isabella in favor of a more effective regime.

Juan Prim reenters the country in triumph.

Isabella, whose armies will no longer defend her, flees to France and is declared deposed on September 29, ending Spain’s Moderate Era.

Her eldest surviving son, the eleven-year-old Alfonso, whose presumed father is her consort, the Duque de Cádiz, accompanies his mother into exile.

She retires from Spanish politics to Paris, whence she will she formally abdicate on June 25, 1870, and where she will remain until her death in 1904.

A new, liberal Spanish constitution had been proclaimed on June 6, 1869.

The generals are determined to keep the leadership of the revolution in their own hands by channeling it into a constitutional monarchy.

Although they had to concede universal male suffrage in the Constitution of 1869, they ruthlessly suppress republican risings in the summer of this year.

Serrano becomes Regent, and Prim the head of the government on June 15.

Prim proceeds to search for a suitable constitutional monarch for the nation.

He is opposed by adherents of Isabella's eleven-year-old son Alfonso de Borbón and advocates of a republic.

The ongoing Cuban revolt makes great demands on Spain in men (one hundred thousand by 1870) and money.

Isabella II had abdicated her rights in Alfonso's favorI in June 1870.

Juan Prim’s attempts to establish a liberal constitutional monarchy in Spain are compounded by the difficulty in finding a new king.

The consideration, supported by Prim, of Prussia's candidate, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, is opposed by France.

Prim and the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, persuade the reluctant Leopold to accept the Spanish throne.

This move greatly alarms France, who feels threatened by a possible combination of Prussia and Spain directed against it.

Leopold's candidacy is withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but the Prussian king William I is unwilling to bow to the French ambassador's demands that he promise to never again allow Leopold to be a candidate for the Spanish throne.

Bismarck edits William's telegraphed description of this interview, and on July 14, he publishes this provocative message, which accomplishes his purposes of infuriating the French government and provoking it into a declaration of war in July.

Juan Prim had finally obtained the election of Amadeus of Savoy, the son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, on November 16, after Prince Leopold stepped down.

On December 27, 1870, just prior to Amadeus' arrival in Spain, Prim is fatally wounded by assassins, and dies three days later.