The Ayutthayans break ten years of informal peace with the rival Thai kingdom of Chiang Mai, mounting an inconclusive invasion of their northern neighbor in 1486.

Fighting ends the following year with the death, at seventy-six, of Chiang Mai’s King Sri Sutham Tilok.

Japan’s tradition of "poem paintings," usually symbols of seclusion in the form of rustic huts, surmounted by numerous eulogies in Chinese verse, gradually gives way to an increasing interest in landscape painting for its own sake as the fifteenth-century draws to a close.

The imperial court and the shogun clans, their authority greatly diminished by the Onin War, war against one another in an attempt to expand their holdings in the “Sengoku,” or Civil War, Era (also known as the “Epoch of the Warring Country”).

The armies of rival warlords ravage the countryside, killing or terrorizing thousands, destroying estates and bankrupting their rulers.

Zhu Youcheng was born in an era where the royal concubine Lady Wan and her associates were on the lookout to murder any child born to the Chenghua Emperor.

The young prince, hidden away by the former empress of the Chenghua Emperor, had escaped death only through a stroke of luck.

Zhu Youcheng was only introduced to his father at the age of five, in 1475, and was created crown prince.

He had been a brilliant child early on and received the best education offered at that time.

Immersed in Confucian education, he had excelled in his studies.

After ascending the throne in 1487 as the Hongzhi Emperor, Zhu Youcheng models his administration after Confucian ideology and he becomes a hardworking and diligent emperor.

He closely supervises all affairs of state, lowers taxes, reduces government spending and makes wise appointments of ministers to government posts.

Individuals such as Liu Jian, Xie Qian and Wang Shu work closely with the Hongzhi Emperor, thus creating a seldom-seen atmosphere of cooperation within the government.

In addition, the emperor also encourages his ministers to be open about all issues, even acknowledging criticisms directed towards the emperor himself.

This creates a more transparent government and introduces fresh energy into the Ming dynasty.

As a result, the populace once again prospers.

It is said that the power of individual eunuchs was curtailed and palace intrigues, prevalent in previous reigns, were absent during his reign.

The Hongzhi Emperor has been compared to the Hongwu Emperor and Yongle Emperor as one of the most brilliant emperors of the Ming dynasty.

In the spring of 1488, the shipwrecked Korean crew of the Jeju-do official Choe Bu are traveling up the Grand Canal while escorted by the Ming courier service en route back to Korea.

Choe observes ferry ships passing by, holding officials who are from the Ministries of War, Justice, and Personnel.

When he asked what is going on, it is explained to him that the new Hongzhi Emperor is ridding his government of corrupt and incompetent officials, and this is a final gesture of good will by the emperor in providing them with a comfortable passage back home by ship.

The Transition from Gothic to Renaissance Fashion in Northern Europe

By the late 15th century, Gothic dress in northern Europe began to be replaced by the simpler, more structured styles of Renaissance Italy. This shift reflected broader cultural changes, as humanist ideals influenced not only art and architecture but also fashion and personal presentation.

---

Key Differences Between Gothic and Renaissance Fashion

Gothic Dress (14th–15th Century)	Renaissance Fashion (Late 15th–16th Century)
Elaborate, highly structured clothing with tight bodices and trailing sleeves	Simpler, more natural silhouettes with clean lines and tailored fits
Tall headdresses (e.g., hennins for women, elaborate chaperons for men)	Lower, more practical headwear, such as caps, bonnets, and berets
Layers of heavy fabrics (velvet, brocade, and fur) and dramatic drapery	Lighter, fitted garments inspired by Roman and Greek styles
Bright colors, embroidered details, and gold threadwork	More subdued, harmonious color palettes reflecting classical aesthetics

---

The Influence of Italian Renaissance Fashion

• Italy, as the center of the Renaissance, dictated the trends that spread across Europe.
• The focus on human proportion and elegance influenced the shift toward more natural, form-fitting clothing.
• Fabrics such as silk, damask, and fine wool became more common, thanks to Italy’s dominance in the textile trade.
• Men’s fashion emphasized broad shoulders and shorter tunics, while women’s gowns featured square necklines and fitted bodices.

---

How Northern Europe Adopted Renaissance Styles

• By 1490, the Burgundian and French Gothic styles were fading, replaced by the streamlined elegance of Italian clothing.
• The courts of France and the Low Countries were early adopters of Renaissance fashion, influenced by diplomatic ties and trade with Italy.
• Spanish fashion remained more conservative, incorporating Italian influences while retaining Gothic elements such as rigid corsetry and elaborate embroidery.

---

Legacy of the Fashion Shift

• This transition marked the beginning of modern European fashion, setting the stage for the highly decorative clothing of the 16th century.
• The influence of Renaissance Italy remained dominant in fashion for the next two centuries, shaping the styles of royal courts and upper-class society across Europe.

Thus, the decline of Gothic dress in northern Europe and the rise of Renaissance fashion reflected not just a change in clothing, but a shift in cultural ideals—from the medieval focus on grandeur to the humanist emphasis on balance and simplicity.

East Europe (1480–1491 CE): Muscovite Independence and Regional Realignment

Political and Military Developments

Formal End of Mongol Overlordship

Between 1480 and 1491 CE, Muscovy definitively ended Mongol overlordship, most notably marked by the stand at the Ugra River in 1480, which symbolized Muscovy's independence from the Golden Horde's remnants.

Further Territorial Expansion

Following independence, Muscovy expanded territorially, consolidating control over regional territories and enhancing centralized governance under Ivan III (the Great). This period saw substantial administrative and political restructuring, significantly bolstering Muscovy's authority.

Khanate Relations and Regional Diplomacy

Interactions with emergent khanates, particularly Kazan, Crimea, and Astrakhan, intensified. Muscovy navigated complex diplomatic and military relationships, balancing cooperation and competition with these Turkic states.

Economic and Technological Developments

Continued Economic Prosperity

Economic growth persisted through strong internal commerce and continued international trade relations. Key urban centers, especially Moscow, became increasingly prosperous, reflecting Muscovy’s growing regional influence.

Advancement in Military and Defense Technology

Further development of military technology, including enhanced fortifications, improved siege warfare capabilities, and advanced cavalry tactics, significantly strengthened Muscovy’s military position.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural and Artistic Flourishing

Cultural and artistic traditions continued to flourish, with increased patronage from the Muscovite elite fostering innovation in architecture, religious art, and secular cultural expressions. This period contributed notably to the distinctive Muscovite cultural identity.

Intellectual and Literary Productivity

Intellectual and literary activities remained vibrant, with chroniclers and scholars actively documenting significant historical, religious, and cultural narratives, reinforcing regional identity and historical continuity.

Settlement Patterns and Urban Development

Urban Growth and Infrastructure Development

Urban centers continued their demographic and economic expansion, with Moscow leading in infrastructure enhancements, urban planning, and administrative efficiency.

Fortifications and Defensive Strategies

Urban fortifications were continually improved, providing enhanced protection and stability, crucial amidst shifting regional dynamics and diplomatic relationships.

Social and Religious Developments

Social Cohesion and Ethnic Integration

The societal fabric further integrated diverse ethnic groups, including the Mari, Mordvins, Udmurts, Komi, and Vepsians, fostering a cohesive and stable society under central Muscovite governance.

Central Influence of the Orthodox Church

The Orthodox Church maintained its influential role, shaping education, moral values, and community life, significantly contributing to societal stability and cultural coherence.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1480 to 1491 CE marked a pivotal era of Muscovite independence, territorial expansion, and diplomatic realignment. These developments substantially shaped the region’s political and cultural trajectories, laying foundational elements for the future Russian state.

Internal strife has seriously weakened the Mongol khanates by the last quarter of the fifteenth century.

Grand Prince Ivan III therefore challenges their overlordship by refusing the tribute in 1480.

He repels the answering invasion to finally liberate Moscow from Tatar domination.

Later this year, he quells a rebellion in Moscow itself.

After achieving victory in the fierce civil war, Ivan eliminates a main rival at Tver in 1485 and wins over most small independent Russian princes to emerge as the sole ruler in central Russia.

The new Muscovite Sudebnik, or law code, is compiled by the scribe Vladimir Gusev during the reign of Ivan III.

Ivan does his utmost to make his capital a worthy successor to Constantinople, and with this objective has invited many foreign masters and artificers to settle in Moscow.

The most noted of these is the Italian Ridolfo di Fioravante, nicknamed "Aristotle" because of his extraordinary knowledge, who had come to Russia in 1475 at Ivan’s invitation and has buit the magnificent Dormition Cathedral in Moscow from 1475-1479, taking inspiration from the eponymous cathedral in Vladimir.

This is the work for which he is best remembered., though he builds several cathedrals and palaces in the Kremlin, and also supervises the construction of the Kremlin walls.

According to some accounts, he was thrown into prison by Ivan III when he asked to return to Italy, and died in captivity.

According to other accounts, he participated as a military engineer and artillery commander in the campaigns against Novgorod from 1477 to 1478, Kazan in 1482, and Tver in 1485.

Northeast Europe (1480–1491 CE): Deepening Union Fragmentation, Polish–Lithuanian Expansion, and Regional Realignments

Between 1480 and 1491 CE, Northeast Europe experienced profound political transformations driven by the continued fracturing of the Kalmar Union, sustained Polish–Lithuanian ascendancy, and the ongoing decline of the Teutonic Knights. Strategic diplomatic maneuvers and emerging power dynamics reshaped the geopolitical landscape, setting the stage for critical future developments.

Accelerating Decline of the Teutonic Knights

The Teutonic Knights, severely weakened by internal discord, financial instability, and diplomatic isolation, found their influence increasingly diminished. The Order’s political and territorial control within Prussia continued to erode, facilitating further encroachments by neighboring powers, particularly the strengthening Polish–Lithuanian Union. Unable to reverse their decline, the Teutonic Knights faced intensified pressure and vulnerability during this era.

Fragmentation and Tensions within the Kalmar Union

Conflicts within the Kalmar Union deepened under Danish King John (Hans), who succeeded Christian I in 1481. His reign saw escalating disputes, particularly between Danish central authority and Swedish nobility, further fueling movements for Swedish autonomy. The resulting political instability significantly weakened the cohesion and effectiveness of the Union, increasingly pushing it toward eventual disintegration.

Polish–Lithuanian Union’s Continued Territorial Expansion

Under Casimir IV Jagiellon, the Polish–Lithuanian Union extended its territorial and political influence. Effective diplomatic initiatives and military campaigns solidified its dominance in Eastern Europe, reinforcing regional stability while significantly weakening the strategic positions of rival states, notably the Teutonic Order in Prussia.

Strategic Maneuvering of the Livonian Confederation

The Livonian Confederation, administered from its political and commercial center in Riga, continued adeptly navigating regional complexities. Enhancing its diplomatic alliances, reinforcing defensive structures, and undertaking internal administrative reforms, the Confederation maintained its autonomy and economic prosperity despite the shifting power dynamics in the region.

Continued Integration of Swedish Finland

Despite the increasing fracturing within the Kalmar Union, Sweden continued consolidating its political and administrative control over southern Finland. Investments in fortifications, ecclesiastical infrastructure, and governmental reforms further cemented Finland’s integration, ensuring sustained political and cultural alignment with Sweden amid broader regional uncertainties.

Economic Stability and Urban Prosperity

Major urban centers, including Reval (Tallinn), Riga, Königsberg, and Visby on Gotland, sustained economic growth through robust maritime commerce and expanded trade networks. These cities remained vital economic hubs, providing stability and resilience against the backdrop of political tensions and shifting alliances.

Ecclesiastical Influence and Cultural Cohesion

The significant roles of ecclesiastical institutions—especially the influential Teutonic Order and regional bishoprics—remained central to education, governance, and cultural continuity. Their continued prominence bolstered Latin Christian traditions, enhancing regional stability and identity during an era marked by geopolitical uncertainty.

Ongoing Geopolitical Realignments

Regional geopolitics remained complex, driven by the persistent tensions within the Kalmar Union, Polish–Lithuanian territorial ambitions, and the continued deterioration of the Teutonic Knights’ authority. The period was characterized by strategic diplomatic maneuvering, shifting alliances, and carefully managed conflicts, reflecting the region's intricate political dynamics.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1480 to 1491 CE was crucial in shaping Northeast Europe’s subsequent historical trajectory, marked by deepening fragmentation within the Kalmar Union, continued expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Union, and persistent regional economic vitality. These developments profoundly influenced future political alignments, cultural identities, and territorial configurations across Northeast Europe.

East Central Europe (1480–1491 CE): Matthias Corvinus’s Hegemony, Jagiellonian Consolidation, and Shifting Regional Dynamics

Between 1480 and 1491 CE, East Central Europe saw significant geopolitical realignments and strengthened dynastic rivalries. King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary solidified his dominance over substantial territories, the Jagiellonian dynasty stabilized its rule in Bohemia and Poland-Lithuania, and internal tensions within the Holy Roman Empire influenced regional stability. This period marked the culmination of Matthias Corvinus's ambitious reign and set the stage for subsequent dynastic shifts and regional consolidation.

Political and Military Developments

Matthias Corvinus’s Hungarian Hegemony

• Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490) continued consolidating Hungarian authority over Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, and parts of Lower Austria, cementing Hungary as a dominant regional power.

• He maintained a powerful standing army (the famed Black Army), effectively defended against Ottoman incursions, and enforced stability across occupied Bohemian territories, significantly influencing regional geopolitics.

Jagiellonian Stability in Bohemia and Poland-Lithuania

• Vladislaus II Jagiellon (r. 1471–1516) stabilized Bohemian governance, strengthened aristocratic alliances, and maintained peaceful coexistence with Matthias Corvinus post–Peace of Olomouc (1479).

• Under King Casimir IV Jagiellon (r. 1447–1492), Poland-Lithuania maintained internal cohesion and political stability, despite growing pressures along its eastern and southern borders.

Habsburg Ascendance and Austrian Rivalries

• The House of Habsburg intensified its territorial ambitions, increasingly contesting Matthias’s control over Lower Austria and actively positioning itself as the leading rival to Hungarian hegemony.

• Habsburg claims and diplomacy foreshadowed significant future conflicts over succession and control of Bohemian and Hungarian territories.

Death of Matthias Corvinus (1490) and Dynastic Transition

• Matthias Corvinus’s death in 1490 marked a crucial turning point, abruptly ending Hungarian regional dominance. His extensive territories fragmented, initiating succession conflicts that involved the Jagiellonian dynasty, Habsburg interests, and Hungarian nobility.

• Vladislaus II Jagiellon succeeded Matthias as king of Hungary (1490), effectively uniting Bohemia and Hungary under Jagiellonian rule and shifting the balance of regional power.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Prosperity under Matthias’s Rule

• Matthias Corvinus’s territories, particularly Silesia, Moravia, and urban centers in Hungary and Lower Austria, benefited from relative stability and flourishing trade, boosted by robust urban commerce and improved infrastructure.

• Increased extraction of precious metals (silver, gold) notably in Hungary, Slovakia, and Silesia under Matthias’s centralized governance significantly bolstered regional economies.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Hungarian Renaissance Flourishing

• Matthias’s court in Buda remained a vibrant Renaissance center, drawing artists, architects, scholars, and humanists from across Europe. His renowned royal library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, became one of the largest and most celebrated collections in Renaissance Europe.

• Artistic and architectural patronage significantly advanced Hungarian and broader Central European cultural landscapes, emphasizing Renaissance humanism and learning.

Bohemian Cultural Continuity

• Bohemia under Vladislaus II Jagiellon preserved its rich Gothic heritage, supported by sustained aristocratic and ecclesiastical patronage, particularly in Prague, where cultural vitality persisted despite diminished regional political influence.

Settlement and Urban Development

Urban Expansion and Stability

• Under stable Hungarian governance, cities in Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary flourished economically and demographically. Urban infrastructure—markets, fortifications, and civic buildings—expanded significantly, reflecting the region’s prosperity and political stability.

• Bohemian and Silesian towns such as Prague, Brno, and Wrocław maintained steady urban growth, benefiting from strengthened trade networks and administrative consolidation.

Social and Religious Developments

Strengthened Aristocratic Influence

• Aristocratic classes in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland significantly enhanced their political influence during the period’s dynastic transitions. Hungarian and Bohemian nobility leveraged Matthias’s death to reinforce local privileges and authority.

• The Polish-Lithuanian nobility under Casimir IV similarly consolidated economic and political control, setting durable patterns for future governance structures.

Religious Stability and Patronage

• The Catholic Church maintained influential positions across Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland-Lithuania, promoting ecclesiastical scholarship, artistic patronage, and maintaining social cohesion amid political shifts.

• Moderate Hussitism persisted in Bohemia, though increasingly overshadowed by Catholic influences under Vladislaus II’s conciliatory rule.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 1480–1491 CE proved pivotal for East Central Europe, reflecting Matthias Corvinus’s regional dominance, subsequent dynastic realignments following his death, and the strengthening of Jagiellonian rule across Bohemia and Hungary. Economic prosperity, cultural flourishing, and urban development under Matthias’s rule profoundly shaped regional identities and infrastructures. His death significantly altered geopolitical dynamics, paving the way for intensified Habsburg-Jagiellonian rivalry that dominated Central European politics in subsequent decades. These transformations firmly established the foundations for the complex political landscape that characterized East Central Europe into the sixteenth century.

The Ascanian line of Saxe-Wittenberg had become extinct with the death of Elector Albert III in 1422, whereafter Emperor Sigismund had bestowed the country and electoral dignity upon Margrave Frederick IV of Meissen, who had been a loyal supporter in the Hussite Wars.

The late Albert's Ascanian relative Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg had protested in vain.

Frederick, one of the seven Prince-electors, was a member of the House of Wettin, which since 1089 had ruled over the adjacent Margraviate of Meissen up the Elbe river, established under Emperor Otto I in 965, and since 1242 also over the Landgraviate of Thuringia.

Thus, in 1423, Saxe-Wittenberg, the Margraviate of Meissen and Thuringia had been united under one ruler, and the unified territory gradually received the name of (Upper) Saxony.

When Elector Frederick II died in 1464, his two surviving sons, in disregard of the primogeniture principle, divide his territories by the Treaty of Leipzig on August 26, 1485, bringing about the still existing separation of the Wettin dynasty into the Ernestine and Albertine lines.

The elder son, Ernest, founder of the Ernestine line, receives large parts of the former Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg and the electoral dignity united with it, as well as ...