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Upper South Asia (45 BCE–CE 99): Consolidation …

Years: 45BCE - 99

Upper South Asia (45 BCE–CE 99): Consolidation of Empires, Trade Networks, and Cultural Dynamism

Rise of the Kushan Empire

The period from 45 BCE to CE 99 saw the emergence and consolidation of the Kushan Empire, founded by the Yuezhi people from Central Asia. Initially settled in Bactria, the Kushans expanded southward, absorbing territories including Gandhara, Balochistan, and parts of present-day Afghanistan and Punjab. Under leaders such as Kujula Kadphises (ca. 30–80 CE), the empire fostered trade, cultural exchange, and political stability across Northern South Asia.

Expansion of Trade Networks

This age was marked by significant expansion of international trade, as Northern South Asia became an integral part of the flourishing Silk Road. The Kushans' control of key trade routes facilitated the movement of goods, ideas, and people between China, India, Persia, and the Mediterranean world. Cities such as Taxila, Mathura, and Pushkalavatibecame vibrant trade and cultural centers, thriving from increased commerce.

Cultural and Artistic Flourishing

The Kushan period witnessed an unprecedented cultural flourishing, particularly in the realm of art and architecture. Gandharan art, blending Hellenistic realism and Indian symbolism, reached new heights, producing renowned sculptures depicting Buddha with Greco-Roman features. Similarly, the artistic school of Mathura evolved its distinct indigenous style, influencing religious iconography across the subcontinent.

Religious Developments and Buddhist Expansion

Under Kushan patronage, Buddhism continued its expansive growth. Rulers such as Kujula Kadphises and later Kanishka I (ca. 127–150 CE) actively supported Buddhist monasteries and institutions. Buddhism became increasingly institutionalized, developing intricate monastic systems that further solidified its presence throughout the region. Buddhist texts were codified, and extensive missionary activities carried Buddhist teachings into Central Asia and China.

Zoroastrianism and Religious Pluralism

Zoroastrianism continued to be influential in the western regions under the Kushans, notably in Balochistan, Gandhara, and areas closer to Persia. The empire's cosmopolitan nature facilitated a pluralistic environment, allowing diverse religious traditions—Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, indigenous practices, and emerging Brahmanical traditions—to coexist and thrive.

Political and Social Structures

The Kushans introduced sophisticated administrative structures influenced by Persian and Greek models. They maintained a centralized bureaucracy supported by regional governors, enhancing political cohesion and stability. Society became increasingly stratified, with distinct roles for merchants, artisans, priests, warriors, and laborers, reflecting both local traditions and influences from conquered territories.

Intellectual and Educational Developments

Educational institutions in Taxila continued to be major centers of learning, attracting scholars from across Asia. Significant advancements occurred in mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and astronomy. The period saw notable scholars, whose works would profoundly influence subsequent intellectual traditions.

Indigenous Cultures and Himalayan Foothills

Small kingdoms and tribal confederations in the Himalayan foothills and regions such as Sikkim and Nepal maintained distinct cultural identities and political autonomy. Indigenous peoples like the Kirāta continued their traditions relatively undisturbed, with occasional interactions, trade, and cultural exchanges with the Kushan Empire and other lowland states.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 45 BCE to CE 99 was transformative, marked by the rise of the influential Kushan Empire, flourishing trade networks, vibrant cultural and artistic expressions, and the expansion of religious and intellectual traditions. This period set critical foundations for the interconnected cultural and economic landscape that characterized Upper South Asia in the following centuries, leaving a rich legacy evident in the diverse cultural heritage of the region.

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The struggle against the adherents of Skhariya …

The struggle against the adherents of Skhariya the Jew is led by hegumen Joseph Volotsky and his followers (Josephinians) and Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod.

Gennady is from the Gonzov boyar clan of Moscow and was, prior to his archiepiscopate, hegumen of the Chudov Monastery in the Moscow Kremlin.

His immediate predecessor in Novgorod, Sergei, had served less than a year and had been recalled and confined to the Chudov Monastery apparently due to mental illness.

Gennady had been named Archbishop of Novgorod in Moscow and placed in office on December 12, 1484, the first Novgorodian prelate not chosen by lots since 1359.

He had arrived in Novgorod in January 1485 with the task (as had been Sergei's) of bringing the newly conquered Novgorodian church (the city had been brought under direct Muscovite control only in 1478 and the last locally elected archbishop, Feofil, had been removed only in 1480) more in line with Muscovite ecclesiastical practices.

He faces opposition from the local clergy by his commemoration of several Muscovite saints, but deals with this opposition by including several local saints in his commemoration.

Gennady's main difficulty during his archepiscopate, however, is rooting out the Judaizer heresy from Novgorod and also Moscow, where it had spread when several Novgorodian clergymen were transferred to the capital.

He is said to have borrowed methods from the Spanish Inquisition, admiring how the King of Spain had dealt with heterodoxy in his kingdom, and he burns several heretics with the support of the grand prince and metropolitan.

After uncovering adherents in Novgorod around 1487, Gennady had written a series of letters to other churchmen over several years calling on them to convene sobors ("church councils") with the aim "not to debate them, but to burn them."

Such councils have been held in 1488 and 1490.

The councils have outlawed religious and non-religious books and initiated their burning, sentenced a number of people to death, sent adherents into exile, and excommunicated them.

In 1491, Skhariya the Jew is executed in Novgorod by the order of Ivan III.

More adherents are executed with Gennady's approval, including archimandrite Kassian of the Iuriev Monastery (who had allowed a number of adherents to hide there), Nekras Rukavov (they first tear out his tongue, then burn him at the stake), a Pskovian monk, Zakhar, and others.

The Novgorodian Fourth Chronicle notes that Gennady also helped pay for one third of the reconstruction of the current Detinets or Kremlin walls between 1484 and 1490.

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