Northeast Europe (1180–1191 CE): Expansion, Crusader Fortresses, and Baltic Defiance

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1828–1839): Liberal Turmoil, Constitutional Struggles, and Early Industrialization

Between 1828 and 1839, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern and central Portugal (Lisbon, Porto), Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, the Basque Country, and northern Navarre—entered a turbulent period defined by liberal revolutions, civil conflicts, constitutional struggles, and the early stages of industrialization. Portugal faced a bitter civil war between liberals and absolutists, while Spain grappled with similar tensions erupting into the First Carlist War. These upheavals reshaped regional identities, intensified political alignments, and set lasting foundations for modern governance and economic development.

Political and Military Developments

The Portuguese Liberal Wars (1828–1834)

• Portugal descended into civil conflict known as the Liberal Wars between supporters of constitutional monarchy (Liberals) and absolutist factions loyal to Dom Miguel, who seized power in 1828.

• Northern Portugal, especially Porto, became a bastion of liberal resistance during the 1832–1833 siege, famously enduring over a year of intense combat and hardship until liberal forces, led by Dom Pedro IV, successfully defeated Miguelist troops.

• The liberal victory in 1834 resulted in Queen Maria II ascending the throne, solidifying constitutional monarchy, curtailing the political power of the Church and aristocracy, and definitively shifting Portugal toward parliamentary governance.

The First Carlist War in Northern Spain (1833–1839)

• In Spain, King Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833 sparked the First Carlist War, a conflict between supporters of Ferdinand's daughter, Isabella II, backed by liberals, and those favoring Ferdinand's brother, Carlos V (Don Carlos), representing traditionalist absolutism.

• Northern Spanish regions—particularly the Basque Country, Navarre, and rural areas of Cantabria, Asturias, and Galicia—became major battlegrounds. Carlists attracted significant rural support, leveraging regional discontent toward centralization and threats to traditional fueros (regional privileges).

• The Carlist slogan "God, Country, and King" resonated strongly in conservative rural communities, although urban centers like Bilbao and Santander generally remained loyal to Isabella and liberal governance.

• The conflict concluded provisionally with the Convention of Vergara (1839), negotiated by the liberal General Baldomero Espartero and moderate Carlist General Rafael Maroto, preserving Basque and Navarrese fueros and promising their integration within the Spanish liberal framework, though tensions lingered unresolved.

Economic Developments: Early Industrialization and Commercial Expansion

Industrialization in Northern Spain

• Northern Spain, particularly the Basque Country and Cantabria, witnessed rapid industrial growth focused on iron mining, metallurgy, and shipbuilding. The development of ironworks around Bilbao and Santander laid foundations for significant future industrial expansion.

• Coal mining in Asturias began modestly but steadily, supplying fuel to emerging industrial enterprises, gradually transforming the regional economy toward industrial capitalism.

Portuguese Economic Reorientation

• Post-war economic recovery in northern Portugal focused on renewed maritime commerce, agricultural improvements, and early manufacturing industries around Porto and Lisbon, gradually reintegrating Portugal into European trade networks.

• British influence remained strong, reflected in port wine exports from Porto and textile manufacturing, stabilizing the economy after the disruptions of civil war.

Social and Urban Developments: Urban Growth Amid Rural Distress

Urban Expansion and Social Change

• Urban areas, particularly Porto, Lisbon, Bilbao, and Santander, grew significantly due to commercial and industrial opportunities. This attracted rural migrants seeking employment, causing rapid urbanization and increased social mobility but also deepening urban poverty and social tensions.

• The growing middle class in these cities embraced liberal and constitutional ideologies, strongly influencing local politics and cultural life.

Rural Distress and Social Tensions

• In Galicia, Asturias, northern León, and rural parts of Navarre, poverty persisted, aggravated by war disruptions and limited agricultural productivity. This fueled migration toward cities and overseas colonies (particularly Brazil and the Americas), significantly reshaping demographic patterns.

Religious and Cultural Developments: Liberal Reforms and Traditionalist Resistance

Ecclesiastical Reforms and Conflict

• Liberal victories in Portugal (1834) and Spain (1839) significantly impacted Church authority. Portugal officially dissolved religious orders (1834), confiscating monastic lands and curtailing Church privileges. Similar measures, albeit more limited, were initiated in Spain, setting the stage for future ecclesiastical conflicts.

• The suppression of religious orders and confiscation of church lands (desamortización) led to profound societal shifts, intensifying conflict between liberals and conservative religious elements, particularly in rural areas and among Carlists in Spain.

Cultural Expression and Romanticism

• Romanticism emerged as the dominant cultural movement, promoting national and regional pride through literature, art, and folklore. Prominent authors and artists explored historical themes and regional identities, fueling nationalist and regionalist sentiments, especially visible in Galicia, the Basque Country, and northern Portugal.

• The revival of regional languages (Galician, Basque) and cultural traditions expressed resistance to centralization, asserting distinctive regional identities amid national conflicts.

Legacy and Significance

The era from 1828 to 1839 marked a critical turning point for Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Political Liberalization and Constitutionalism: Liberal victories in Portugal and Spain definitively advanced constitutional governance, though conservative resistance persisted, sowing seeds for future conflict.

• Economic Modernization and Industrial Growth: Early industrialization, particularly in the Basque Country and Cantabria, significantly transformed regional economies, initiating sustained economic growth and industrial development.

• Strengthening of Regional Identities: Intense conflicts reinforced distinct regional identities and autonomy claims, particularly through the Carlist Wars in northern Spain, highlighting enduring tensions between centralizing national governments and local traditions.

Ultimately, these developments laid foundational structures for modern state formation, industrial economies, and ongoing struggles over regional autonomy, deeply influencing subsequent historical trajectories across Atlantic Southwest Europe.

Portugal's Constitutional Charter of 1826 – A Compromise Between Absolutists and Liberals

Portugal’s Constitutional Charter of 1826, granted by King Pedro IV (Emperor Pedro I of Brazil), was an attempt to reconcile absolutists and liberals by giving both factions a role in government. Unlike the radical Constitution of 1822, which had severely limited monarchical power, the Charter sought a balance between royal authority and constitutional governance.

Key Features of the Constitutional Charter

The Constitutional Charter established four branches of government, distinguishing it from the more rigid three-branch model of classical liberalism.

1. The Legislature – A Bicameral System

• Chamber of Peers (Upper Chamber)

  • Comprised of life and hereditary peers and clergy.
  • Members were appointed by the king, ensuring aristocratic and clerical influence in government.

• Chamber of Deputies (Lower Chamber)

  • Consisted of 111 deputies, elected to four-year terms.
  • Elected indirectly—local assemblies (themselves elected by property-owning taxpayers) selected deputies.
  • This ensured political power remained with the propertied classes, excluding lower-income citizens from voting rights.

2. Judicial Power

• Exercised by independent courts, maintaining a separation of powers with oversight from the monarchy.

3. Executive Power

• Held by the ministers of government, who administered state affairs under the king’s authority.

4. Moderative Power

• Granted exclusively to the king, giving him an absolute veto over all legislation.
• Allowed the monarch to intervene in legislative and judicial matters, making the king the ultimate arbiter of governance.

Significance – A Conservative Constitutionalism

• Unlike the radical democratic model of the Constitution of 1822, the Charter retained significant monarchical authority, making it more palatable to absolutists.
• It created a constitutional monarchy with aristocratic influence, preventing full parliamentary control over government.
• This system was similar to the British constitutional model, but with a stronger monarchical presence.

Impact – A Fragile Compromise

• The Charter failed to fully reconcile liberals and absolutists, as neither faction was entirely satisfied.
• Absolutists still favored direct monarchical rule, while radicals sought a more democratic constitution.
• The political instability of the 1830s and 1840s showed that the Charter, while an attempt at compromise, could not fully resolve Portugal’s ideological divisions.

Conclusion – The Charter as a Middle Path

The Constitutional Charter of 1826 was a landmark attempt to blend monarchy and constitutionalism, providing a legal framework that lasted (with interruptions) until 1910. Though it avoided the extremes of absolute monarchy and radical democracy, it failed to prevent civil conflict, leading to further struggles between moderates, radicals, and royalists throughout the 19th century.

The Death of Pedro IV and the Political Struggle Between Moderates and Radicals (1834–1836)

After securing victory for the liberals in the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834), Pedro IV (Emperor Pedro I of Brazil) died on September 24, 1834, less than three months after his triumph. His fifteen-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória, was proclaimed Queen Maria II of Portugal (r. 1834–1853), but her reign was immediately plagued by political divisions among the victors.

Liberal Divisions – Moderates vs. Radicals

Although the liberals had defeated the absolutists, they were not united:

• Moderates (Charterists)

  • Supported the Constitutional Charter of 1826, which established a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature.
  • Represented noble elites, military leaders, and conservative liberals.
  • Favored a gradual approach to reform.

• Radicals (Setembristas)

  • Advocated for a return to the more democratic Constitution of 1822.
  • Represented urban middle-class liberals, intellectuals, and reformists.
  • Sought stronger parliamentary power and more social and economic reforms.

Frequent Government Collapses (1834–1836)

1. The Duke of Palmela’s Moderate Government (1834–1835)

   • The first government of Maria II was led by the moderate Duke of Palmela.
   • His administration collapsed in May 1835, unable to resolve economic problems or manage liberal divisions.

2. The Duke of Saldanha’s Short-Lived Rule (1835–1836)

   • In May 1835, the Duke of Saldanha took over but also failed to maintain stability.
   • By May 1836, his government collapsed, leading to another crisis.

The Radical Takeover – The Setembrista Revolution (September 1836)

• In July 1836, radical deputies were elected from Porto, advocating for a return to the Constitution of 1822 as a solution to Portugal’s economic crisis.
• When they arrived in Lisbon, they were met with large pro-radical demonstrations, further pressuring the government.
• On September 9, 1836, the moderate government collapsed, and the radicals, led by Manuel da Silva Passos, took control.
• The Constitutional Charter of 1826 was annulled, and the Constitution of 1822 was reinstated until it could be revised by a constituent Cortes.

Conclusion – Portugal Enters a Period of Political Instability

The victory of the liberals in 1834 did not bring stability, as internal divisions between moderates and radicals led to constant political upheaval. The radical Setembristas now controlled the government, but their rule would soon face conservative opposition, leading to further conflict and instability in Portugal’s political evolution.

The Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834) – The Liberal Victory and the Restoration of the Constitutional Charter

Following Pedro I’s abdication of the Brazilian throne in 1831, tensions in Portugal erupted into full-scale civil war between liberal constitutionalists, led by Pedro, Duke of Braganza, and absolutists (Miguelists), who supported Dom Miguel's claim to the throne. The war ended with a liberal victory in 1834, leading to the restoration of the Constitutional Charter.

Pedro’s Return to the Fight for Portugal (1831–1832)

• Pedro abdicated the Brazilian throne in favor of his son, Pedro II, in 1831 and sailed for Britain before organizing a military expedition to reclaim Portugal for liberal rule.
• By March 1831, he established a government-in-exile in the Azores, a key liberal stronghold.

The Siege of Porto (July 1832 – August 1833)

• In July 1832, Pedro’s forces landed in Porto, which soon became the center of liberal resistance.
• The absolutists (Miguelists) besieged Porto, attempting to crush the liberal stronghold.
• Despite being encircled for over a year, the liberals held their position, waiting for an opportunity to break the stalemate.

The Turning Point – The Capture of Lisbon (1833)

• In June 1833, still surrounded in Porto, the liberals launched a bold counteroffensive:
  • The Duke of Terceira led a force to the Algarve, a key absolutist-controlled region.
  • At the same time, a liberal naval squadron defeated the Miguelist fleet near Cabo São Vicente, securing naval superiority.
• Terceira landed at Faro and marched north through the Alentejo, capturing Lisbon on July 24, 1833.

Final Campaign and the End of the War (1834)

• With Lisbon in liberal hands, the Miguelists lifted their siege of Porto and marched south in a final attempt to defeat Pedro’s forces.
• However, they were decisively defeated at Évora-Monte.
• On May 26, 1834, peace was declared:
  • Dom Miguel was exiled permanently from Portugal, never to return.
  • Pedro restored the Constitutional Charter, reestablishing constitutional monarchy in Portugal.

Conclusion – Liberalism Triumphs in Portugal

• The Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834) ended absolutist rule, ensuring that Portugal would be governed by a constitutional monarchy.
• Pedro’s victory secured the throne for Queen Maria II, his daughter, under the principles of the Constitutional Charter.
• The war reflected the larger 19th-century struggle between absolutism and liberalism in Europe, marking a decisive moment in Portuguese history.

Pedro’s final triumph over Miguel ensured that Portugal remained on a liberal constitutional path, shaping the country’s political development for decades to come.

The Liberal Resistance to Miguel’s Usurpation (1828) and the Five Years of Repression

When Miguel declared himself absolute king of Portugal in 1828, the liberals did not accept his usurpation without a fight. His seizure of power violated the Constitutional Charter of 1826 and directly threatened the rights of Queen Maria II and her supporters.

The Liberal Rebellion Begins (May 18, 1828)

• On May 18, 1828, the garrison in Porto, Portugal’s most liberal city, declared its loyalty to Pedro IV, Queen Maria II, and the Constitutional Charter.
• The rebellion quickly spread to other cities, as liberals rose up against Miguel’s absolutist rule.
• However, Miguel’s forces moved swiftly to crush the resistance, using the army and police to suppress uprisings across Portugal.

Miguel’s Crackdown – Thousands Arrested or Exiled

• Many liberal officers, politicians, and intellectuals were arrested as Miguel tightened his grip on power.
• Thousands of liberals fled to Spain and Britain, where they sought foreign support for their cause.
• Some exiles regrouped in the Azores, which remained one of the few strongholds of liberal resistance.

The Five Years of Repression (1828–1833)

• Miguel’s reign became known for severe political persecution, with mass arrests, censorship, and executions of liberals.
• Portugal was ruled by absolutist policies, undoing the reforms that had been introduced under the Constitutional Charter of 1826.
• The press was censored, and political opposition was silenced, making Portugal a repressive absolutist state.

The Path to the Liberal Wars (1828–1834)

• The exiled liberals, led by Pedro IV, began organizing military resistance, setting the stage for the Portuguese Civil War (1832–1834), also known as the Liberal Wars.
• With support from Britain, France, and Spain, Pedro IV would eventually return to challenge Miguel’s rule, leading to one of the most significant conflicts in 19th-century Portuguese history.

Conclusion – Repression and the Struggle for Constitutionalism

Miguel’s absolutist coup led to five years of political persecution, but the liberal opposition did not disappear. Instead, they regrouped in exile and prepared for war, ensuring that the struggle between absolutism and constitutionalism would soon escalate into a full-scale conflict.

The French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars had proved disastrous for the Spanish economy, and had left a deeply divided country prone to political instability; it will remain so for more than a century.

There is uneasy peace in Spain.

King Ferdinand VII, having in 1827 crushed a final revolt in Catalonia, is to spend the remainder of his reign restoring domestic stability and the integrity of Spain's finances.

Ferdinand's chief concern after 1823 has been how to solve the problem of his own succession.

Married three times in his life, he remains childless; the succession law of Philip V of Spain, which still stands in Ferdinand's time, excludes women from the succession.

By this law, Ferdinand's successor will be his brother, Carlos María Isidro de Borbón.

Carlos, however, is a reactionary and an authoritarian who desires the restoration of the traditional moralism of the Spanish state, the elimination of any traces of constitutionalism, and a close relationship with the Roman Catholic Church.

Though surely not a liberal, Ferdinand is fearful of Carlos's extremism.

Because of just such a conflict between reactionary and moderate forces in the royal family, war breaks out in neighboring Portugal in 1828—the War of the Two Brothers.

The Portuguese Succession Crisis and Miguel’s Absolutist Coup (1826–1828)

The death of King João VI in 1826 plunged Portugal into a dispute over the royal succession, leading to political instability and eventually civil war. The rightful heir, Pedro I of Brazil, had briefly taken the Portuguese throne as Pedro IV, but neither Portugal nor Brazil wanted a unified monarchy. This led Pedro to abdicate in favor of his seven-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória, under the condition that she marry his younger brother, Miguel.

However, this compromise quickly collapsed, as Miguel seized power, abolished the Constitutional Charter of 1826, and restored absolutist rule, leading to the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834).

The Constitutional Charter of 1826 – A Failed Attempt at Compromise

• To bridge the divide between liberals and absolutists, Pedro granted the Constitutional Charter of 1826, which:

  • Created a bicameral legislature, with a Chamber of Peers (appointed by the king) and a Chamber of Deputies (elected through limited suffrage).
  • Established four branches of government:
    • Legislative power – Exercised by the two chambers.
    • Executive power – Held by the ministers of government.
    • Judicial power – Vested in the courts.
    • Moderative power – Controlled by the king, with an absolute veto over all legislation.

• The absolutists (landowners and the Church) rejected this compromise, fearing that it would erode their traditional power.

Miguel’s Return and Seizure of the Throne (1828)

• In February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal under the pretense of swearing loyalty to the Charter and acting as regent.
• However, his absolutist supporters immediately proclaimed him king, pushing him to restore absolute monarchy.
• On February 26, 1828, he declared himself regent, but by June 23, he had overthrown Pedro’s Constitutional Charter and crowned himself King Miguel I.
• He replaced moderate officials with absolutists, dismissed the elected Cortes, and established a submissive body that formally legitimized his rule in May 1828.

The Path to Civil War (1828–1834)

• Miguel’s coup led to mass arrests, exiles, and persecution of liberals, many of whom fled to Spain and Britain.
• The liberal opposition, including Pedro IV, began organizing military resistance, leading to the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834).
• Portugal was plunged into a brutal conflict between absolutists and constitutionalists, marking one of the defining struggles of 19th-century Portuguese history.

Conclusion – Miguel’s Coup and the Fall of Constitutionalism

By violating his oath and seizing absolute power, Miguel undid years of liberal reform and plunged Portugal into war. His rule, based on absolutist repression, would soon be challenged by Pedro IV and the liberal forces, leading to a decisive struggle for Portugal’s future.

The Liberal Challenge to Miguel’s Usurpation (May 1828) – The Failed Porto Rebellion

After Miguel seized the Portuguese throne in 1828 and abolished the Constitutional Charter of 1826, liberal forces immediately sought to resist his absolutist rule. The first major attempt to challenge Miguel's usurpation occurred in Porto, the stronghold of Portuguese liberalism.

The Porto Garrison Declares Loyalty to Pedro and the Charter (May 18, 1828)

• On May 18, 1828, the garrison in Porto—a city known for its progressive and constitutionalist leanings—declared its loyalty to Pedro IV, Queen Maria II, and the Constitutional Charter.
• This act sparked hope for a wider liberal uprising, as the city had long been a center of resistance to absolutism.

Exiled Liberals Land in Porto and Attempt an Uprising

• A group of liberal exiles, who had fled Portugal following Miguel’s coup, returned to Porto aboard the British ship Belfast.
• Once ashore, they raised a rebellion against Miguel’s forces, hoping to rally the people and expand the revolt to other cities.
• The uprising briefly spread beyond Porto, but it was quickly met with fierce repression.

Failure of the Rebellion and Liberal Flight to England

• The rebellion failed, as Miguel’s forces crushed the insurrection before it could gain momentum.
• The leading liberals were forced to retreat back to the Belfast and fled once again to England, where they continued to plan resistance.
• Miguel responded with a brutal crackdown, arresting and executing suspected liberals, further deepening the divide between absolutists and constitutionalists.

The Road to the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834)

• Though the Porto rebellion failed, it proved that resistance to Miguel’s rule was far from over.
• Liberal exiles regrouped in Britain and the Azores, preparing for a full-scale military campaign against Miguel’s absolutist regime.
• Within a few years, this conflict would escalate into the Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834), also known as the War of the Two Brothers, as Pedro IV returned to reclaim the throne for Maria II.

Conclusion – A Failed Uprising, But the Fight Continues

The failed Porto rebellion of May 1828 demonstrated that Miguel’s absolutist rule would not go unchallenged. Though the liberals were forced back into exile, they remained determined to restore constitutional government, setting the stage for the violent struggle that would define Portugal’s political future.

The Overthrow of Queen Maria II and the Beginning of the Liberal Wars (June 23, 1828)

On June 23, 1828, Dom Miguel of Portugal overthrew his niece, Queen Maria II, officially abolishing the Constitutional Charter of 1826 and declaring himself absolute king. This coup d’état sparked the Liberal Wars (1828–1834), also known as the War of the Two Brothers, as Miguel’s absolutists clashed with the liberal supporters of Maria II and Pedro IV.

Background – The Portuguese Succession Crisis (1826–1828)

• King João VI’s death in March 1826 left Portugal without a clear successor.
• His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil, was the rightful heir but had declared Brazilian independence in 1822, making it politically impossible to unite Portugal and Brazil under one ruler.
• The late king’s younger son, Miguel, had been exiled to Austria after leading failed revolts against his father’s liberal government.
• Before his death, João VI had appointed his daughter, Isabel Maria, as regent, but never specified whether Pedro or Miguel was the rightful king.

Pedro IV’s Solution – A Conditional Abdication

• Aware that absolutists in Portugal wanted Miguel on the throne, Pedro IV devised a compromise:

  • He abdicated in favor of his seven-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória.
  • Maria would marry her uncle Miguel, who would serve as regent until she reached majority.
  • Miguel would swear allegiance to the Constitutional Charter of 1826, ensuring a constitutional monarchy.

• Miguel accepted the arrangement in words but not in intent.

Miguel’s Betrayal – Seizing the Throne (1828)

• Upon arriving in Portugal in 1828, Miguel violated his oath and proclaimed himself absolute king.
• On June 23, 1828, he abolished the Constitutional Charter, dismissed liberal officials, and arrested or exiled constitutionalists.
• Maria was deposed, and her supporters were persecuted or forced into exile.
• Portugal was plunged into repression, with Miguel imposing absolutist rule and restoring conservative aristocratic and clerical privileges.

The Liberal Resistance and Maria’s Exile

• Liberals in Portugal rebelled, but Miguel quickly crushed the opposition, leading to a wave of arrests and executions.
• Many liberals, including military officers, politicians, and intellectuals, fled to Britain, France, and Brazil.
• Queen Maria II, now in exile, traveled across Europe seeking support, visiting:
  • Vienna, where her maternal grandfather, Emperor Francis I of Austria, resided.
  • London and Paris, seeking diplomatic backing.

The Beginning of the Liberal Wars (1828–1834)

• Miguel’s seizure of power sparked a civil war between:
  • Absolutists, led by King Miguel I, supported by the nobility, clergy, and rural conservatives.
  • Liberals, supporting Maria II and Pedro IV, consisting of exiled Portuguese liberals, constitutionalists, and military forces backed by Britain and France.
• The war would last six years, culminating in the defeat of Miguel and the restoration of Maria II to the throne in 1834.

Conclusion – The Struggle for Portugal’s Future

Miguel’s coup and rejection of constitutional monarchy led to one of the most defining conflicts in Portuguese history. The Liberal Wars would determine whether Portugal would be ruled by an absolutist or constitutional system, with the ultimate victory of the liberals in 1834 securing Portugal’s path toward constitutionalism and parliamentary governance.