North Polynesia (1888–1899 CE)

Political Unrest and Overthrow of the Monarchy

Following the Bayonet Constitution of 1887, King David Kalākaua saw a significant erosion of royal authority in favor of the legislature and influential foreign business interests. The political landscape was increasingly dominated by the Missionary Party, composed largely of American descendants and businessmen who sought closer ties or outright annexation to the United States.

Kalākaua passed away on January 20, 1891, during a visit to San Francisco. He was succeeded by his sister, Queen Liliʻuokalani, the last monarch of Hawaii, who assumed the throne amid rising tensions. Princess Ka'iulani, heir apparent and niece of Liliʻuokalani, actively worked to prevent Hawaii’s annexation to the United States through international appeals and diplomatic efforts.

Queen Liliʻuokalani and the 1893 Overthrow

Queen Liliʻuokalani attempted to reverse the Bayonet Constitution and restore royal authority by drafting a new constitution in January 1893, aiming to re-establish the monarchy's full powers. Her actions triggered immediate backlash from the Missionary Party and prominent businessmen, leading to the formation of the Committee of Safety, led by Sanford B. Dole, a descendant of New England missionaries. On January 17, 1893, aided by the unauthorized landing of U.S. Marines from the USS Boston under Minister John L. Stevens, the Committee executed a bloodless coup, deposing Queen Liliʻuokalani. The Queen’s soldiers did not resist, avoiding bloodshed.

Formation of the Republic of Hawaii

President Grover Cleveland, who came to office in March 1893, opposed the annexation and commissioned the Blount Report, which found the removal of Queen Liliʻuokalani illegal and recommended her reinstatement. However, Dole’s provisional government refused. Congress conducted a separate investigation known as the Morgan Report, which concluded no wrongdoing had occurred except by the Queen herself. On July 4, 1894, the provisional government formally established the Republic of Hawaii, with Dole as its first and only president, solidifying political control in the hands of a minority of foreign-born and white residents.

Resistance and Cultural Impact

Native Hawaiians actively opposed annexation through petitions, protests, and peaceful resistance. In 1897, the massive Kūʻē Petitions gathered signatures from nearly all adult native Hawaiians, asserting their opposition to annexation. The Hawaiian-language newspaper Ka Leo o ka Lāhui became a crucial platform for native Hawaiian voices advocating against American annexation and for the restoration of sovereignty.

Annexation to the United States

Despite significant local opposition, international events shifted U.S. opinion. The strategic importance of Hawaii, emphasized during the Spanish-American War in 1898, convinced the United States government of the need for a permanent Pacific presence. On July 7, 1898, under President William McKinley, the United States Congress approved a joint resolution known as the Newlands Resolution, effectively annexing Hawaii. The formal transfer of sovereignty took place on August 12, 1898, with Hawaii becoming the Territory of Hawaii under U.S. jurisdiction.

Economic and Social Transformations

Economic transformations accelerated with annexation. Plantation agriculture, particularly sugarcane cultivation, expanded significantly. Thousands of immigrant laborers from China, Japan, Portugal, and the Philippines continued to arrive, profoundly altering Hawaii's demographic landscape. Honolulu further modernized its infrastructure, reflecting Hawaii’s growing integration into the American economic system.

Cultural Preservation Amid Change

Despite these upheavals, native Hawaiian culture persisted and evolved. Hula, music, and indigenous crafts experienced renewed interest and documentation as part of broader cultural assertions against assimilation pressures. Hawaiian leaders and intellectuals worked tirelessly to preserve language and traditions in the face of overwhelming external influence.

Conclusion of the Era

The period from 1888 to 1899 marked a critical turning point for North Polynesia and Hawaii in particular. The dramatic political shift from a sovereign monarchy to a U.S. territory set the stage for the region’s future, embedding profound economic, demographic, and cultural changes whose effects would resonate deeply into the twentieth century and beyond.