The Treaty of Verdun (843) and the Division of the Carolingian Empire

Following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, his eldest son, Lothair I, asserts his claim to overlordship over his brothers' kingdoms and supports his nephew Pepin II’s claim to Aquitaine. However, his brothers, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, reject his authority, leading to civil war among Charlemagne’s grandsons.

The Civil War and the Battle of Fontenay (841)

• Lothair I faces a major defeat at the Battle of Fontenay (841) at the hands of Louis the German and Charles the Bald, who form an alliance against him.
• Their alliance is sealed with the Oath of Strasbourg (842), a key historical document written in both Old French and Old High German, symbolizing the growing linguistic and cultural divide between the eastern and western realms.

The Treaty of Verdun (843): A Formal Division

With his military position weakened, Lothair agrees to negotiate, leading to the Treaty of Verdun (843), which permanently divides the Carolingian Empire among the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious:

• Louis the German receives the East Frankish Kingdom (East Francia), encompassing the lands of German-speaking peoples:
  • Saxony, Eastern Francia, Alemannia, Bavaria, and Carinthia
  • Frankfurt-am-Main becomes the capital of East Francia
• Charles the Bald receives the West Frankish Kingdom (West Francia), comprising French-speaking territories:
  • Western Francia, Aquitaine, Gascony, Brittany, and the Spanish Marches
  • This kingdom evolves into medieval France
• Lothair I retains Middle Francia, the imperial title, and control over:
  • Italy, Provence, Burgundy, and Lotharingia (Lorraine)
  • However, Middle Francia proves politically fragile and will be partitioned further after Lothair’s death in 855.

The Frankish Tradition of Partible Inheritance

The Treaty of Verdun is often interpreted as the beginning of the Carolingian Empire’s decline, but it actually reflects the Frankish adherence to the Germanic tradition of partible inheritance, rather than primogeniture(inheritance by the eldest son).

• Unlike later medieval monarchies that favored single-heir succession, the Franks divided their realms among all male heirs, ensuring that each son received a kingdom rather than ruling as a vassal.
• This tradition continued to fragment the Carolingian realm, leading to the eventual emergence of the distinct kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy.

Legacy of the Treaty of Verdun

The Treaty of Verdun is one of the most consequential agreements in European history, as it:

• Sets the foundation for modern France and Germany by establishing the linguistic and political divide between the French-speaking West and German-speaking East.
• Marks the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire, as the imperial title becomes linked to Italy rather than Francia.
• Prefigures the dissolution of Charlemagne’s empire, as further partitions and dynastic struggles weaken centralized rule.

While Charlemagne’s vision of a unified Christian empire ultimately proves unsustainable, the Treaty of Verdun shapes the political map of medieval Europe, influencing its kingdoms, conflicts, and cultures for centuries to come.

East Central Europe (832–843 CE): Rastislav’s Moravia, Carolingian Turmoil, and Saxon Dynastic Foundations

Between 832 and 843 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern parts of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—witnessed significant shifts driven by internal Carolingian instability and rising Slavic and Saxon political autonomy. In Great Moravia, the ascension of Rastislav (r. 846–870) laid the groundwork for greater independence. Saxon noble houses, particularly the emerging Liudolfings, further solidified their regional influence, while the wider Carolingian Empire, wracked by internal divisions culminating in the landmark Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), saw its hold on East Central Europe challenged.

Political and Military Developments

Rise of Rastislav and Moravian Autonomy

• Although officially ascending in 846, Rastislav began exerting political influence in the early 840s, consolidating Great Moravia’s territories, strengthening internal governance, and asserting greater independence from Carolingian overlordship.

• Rastislav skillfully navigated relationships with neighboring Frankish rulers, setting the stage for Moravia’s diplomatic and military prominence.

Carolingian Internal Struggles and Treaty of Verdun (843 CE)

• Following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious in 840 CE, the Carolingian Empire plunged into civil war among his sons, Louis the German, Lothair I, and Charles the Bald.

• The resulting Treaty of Verdun (843 CE) partitioned the empire, with East Francia, including Bavaria, Thuringia, and Saxony, falling under Louis the German, significantly reshaping the political landscape of East Central Europe.

Strengthening of Saxon Noble Dynasties

• Saxon noble power consolidated under influential figures like Liudolf, whose expanding territory and strategic marriages began to elevate the Liudolfing (Ottonian) lineage into a dominant regional force.

• The groundwork laid by Liudolf would eventually position the Liudolfings as future rulers of East Francia.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Continuity and Growth

• Regional trade networks remained robust despite Carolingian internal disruptions, sustaining prosperity in Bavaria, Thuringia, Saxony, and Moravia through commerce in metals, textiles, agricultural goods, and luxury items.

Infrastructure and Fortifications

• Infrastructure and defensive fortifications across the Carolingian frontier, Saxon territories, and Moravia continued to improve, reflecting sustained economic activity, administrative stability, and military preparedness.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Flourishing in Great Moravia

• Rastislav’s Moravia experienced intensified cultural developments, expressed through distinctive artistic styles, ceramics, metalwork, and fortifications, reinforcing a unified Slavic identity.

Continued Saxon Cultural Integration

• Saxon territories deepened their cultural assimilation into the Carolingian framework through religious patronage, the growth of monasteries such as Gandersheim Abbey, and the adoption of Frankish administrative customs, shaping a new Saxon aristocratic culture.

Settlement and Urban Development

Expansion of Moravian Urban Centers

• Under Rastislav, Moravian settlements grew rapidly into influential centers of governance, commerce, and culture, laying the groundwork for the significant political and ecclesiastical hubs that defined Great Moravia.

Stable Growth in Carolingian and Saxon Urban Areas

• Bavarian, Thuringian, and Saxon settlements continued their growth, supported by stable governance and regional commerce, reinforcing their importance within East Francia.

Social and Religious Developments

Advancing Christianization

• Christianity continued its rapid expansion throughout the region, especially in Saxony and Moravia, where local leaders actively patronized missionary efforts, solidifying the integration of these territories into the Christian European cultural sphere.

Emergence of Noble Dynasties and Social Hierarchies

• The growing power of noble dynasties, notably the Liudolfings in Saxony and Mojmirid rulers in Moravia, solidified hierarchical social structures that profoundly influenced subsequent regional governance and societal organization.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 832–843 CE significantly reshaped East Central Europe's historical trajectory. Rastislav's ascendance in Moravia, Carolingian internal strife marked by the Treaty of Verdun, and the steady rise of powerful Saxon noble dynasties together laid critical foundations for future political entities. These events decisively influenced the region's medieval history, reshaping its cultural identities, political boundaries, and social hierarchies for generations.

The reign of Michael III—last of the Amorian, or Phrygian, dynasty—and his regents, from 842 to 867, is marked by the restoration of the use of icons in the Greek Church, and by successful campaigns against the Arabs and Slavs.

Eastern Southeast Europe (832–843 CE): Icon Restoration and Regional Conflicts

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continued Stability Amid Renewed Conflicts

From 832 to 843 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe maintained relative demographic stability despite increased regional tensions and renewed conflicts. The region continued adapting to shifting political realities, marked by Byzantine diplomatic maneuvers and military campaigns.

Political and Military Developments

Restoration of Icons Under Michael III

The reign of Emperor Michael III, the last ruler of the Amorian (Phrygian) dynasty, along with his regents, was notably marked by the restoration of icon veneration within the Greek Church in 843 CE. This restoration significantly impacted religious and political unity within the Byzantine Empire.

Successful Campaigns Against Arabs and Slavs

Under Michael III’s regency and subsequent reign, the Byzantine Empire conducted successful military campaigns against Arab incursions and Slavic tribes. These victories temporarily strengthened the empire’s defenses and restored some of its regional prestige.

Bulgarian-Serbian Conflict

The period witnessed the first recorded conflict between Bulgarians and Serbs, prompted by Byzantine diplomatic strategy. This war, occurring during the reign of Bulgarian Khan Presian between 839 and 842, underscored the complexities of regional politics and Byzantine influence in local disputes.

Economic and Technological Developments

Continued Economic Adaptation

Economic adjustments continued, reflecting territorial shifts and military dynamics. Despite geopolitical turbulence, economic resilience persisted, supported by strategic trade and fortified infrastructures that protected vital economic interests.

Reinforced Defensive Strategies

Strategic military fortifications continued to be a priority, with ongoing efforts to strengthen defensive structures around critical frontier and urban regions, notably Constantinople. These fortifications were essential in maintaining regional stability against external threats.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Revitalized Religious Art and Iconography

The restoration of icons in 843 CE revitalized religious art and significantly shaped cultural and spiritual practices within the Byzantine Empire. Artistic production flourished, emphasizing renewed expressions of faith and communal identity.

Scholarly and Intellectual Continuity

Educational institutions and scholarly communities remained active, preserving and advancing classical, theological, and philosophical traditions. Intellectual continuity supported cultural resilience during a period marked by significant religious and political shifts.

Social and Religious Developments

Impact of Icon Restoration

The official restoration of icon veneration had profound social and religious implications, reinforcing Eastern Orthodoxy's role in societal cohesion and spiritual life. Religious institutions regained prominence, further shaping regional identity and community stability.

Ecclesiastical Strength and Community Resilience

The renewed emphasis on icon veneration strengthened ecclesiastical influence, guiding social dynamics and fortifying community resilience amidst geopolitical uncertainties and regional conflicts.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 832 to 843 CE was characterized by significant religious restoration, successful military actions against external threats, and the emergence of notable regional conflicts. These developments significantly reshaped Eastern Southeast Europe’s religious, political, and cultural landscapes, setting enduring foundations for future historical trajectories.

The first war between Bulgarians and Serbs, precipitated by East Roman diplomacy, occurs during the reign of Khan Presian between 839 and 842.

The Middle East: 832–843 CE

Abbasid Shifts: New Capital, Turkish Dominance, and Internal Challenges

This era marks significant shifts within the Abbasid Caliphate, beginning notably with Caliph al-Mu'tasim (833–842), who, confronting growing unrest in Baghdad, relocates the imperial capital to the newly founded city of Samarra in 836. This strategic move is aimed at reducing tensions between the population of Baghdad and the caliph’s increasingly influential Turkish guards and military elite.

The establishment of Samarra signals a deeper transformation in Abbasid governance, as Turkic mercenary groups, initially recruited as loyal personal guards, rapidly ascend to dominant positions within the military and bureaucracy. Their influence expands dramatically, and within a few decades, these Turkish commanders become kingmakers, exerting powerful influence over the succession and policies of subsequent caliphs.

These administrative and military changes coincide with continuing theological controversies initiated by Caliph al-Ma'mun’s enforcement of Mu'tazilism. Al-Mu'tasim sustains the policy of the mihna (inquisition), enforcing doctrinal conformity concerning the created nature of the Qur'an. This inquisition alienates many traditionalists, contributing to growing sectarian divides and internal dissent within the caliphate.

Economically and culturally, Samarra briefly flourishes under Abbasid patronage, becoming known for its impressive architectural achievements, notably the famed Great Mosque of Samarra with its distinctive spiral minaret, symbolizing Abbasid grandeur.

Nevertheless, despite the caliphate’s apparent strength, this era sows seeds of instability. Reliance on Turkish mercenaries fractures traditional Arab-Persian alliances, significantly altering the caliphate's internal power structures and setting the stage for subsequent periods of fragmentation and regional autonomy across the Middle East.

The Abbasid caliph transfers the capital from Baghdad to Samarra' and begins employing Turkic mercenary groups, who will later come to dominate the dynasty.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (832–843 CE): Carolingian Fragmentation, Umayyad Prosperity, and Cultural Dynamism

The era 832–843 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by emerging political fragmentation within the Carolingian Empire, sustained cultural and economic prosperity under the Umayyad emirate in Al-Andalus, and continued vibrancy among Mozarab and Jewish communities.

Carolingian Fragmentation and Treaty of Verdun

Following the reign of Louis the Pious (r. 814–840 CE), the Carolingian Empire faces significant internal divisions. Upon his death in 840 CE, disputes among his sons lead to a prolonged conflict that culminates in the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), dividing the empire into separate territories. Italy becomes part of the kingdom awarded to Lothair I, establishing a pattern of political fragmentation and regional autonomy that will define subsequent centuries.

Continued Prosperity in Umayyad Iberia

In Iberia, under Emir Abd al-Rahman II (r. 822–852 CE), Al-Andalus maintains robust cultural and economic growth. Córdoba continues its ascent as a center of intellectual, artistic, and commercial excellence, bolstered by extensive infrastructure projects and vibrant urban culture. The emirate attracts scholars, artisans, and merchants, further enhancing the region’s cosmopolitan atmosphere.

Mozarab Communities and Cultural Influence

Mozarab communities remain influential, preserving their Christian traditions while actively engaging in Islamic intellectual and cultural environments. Mozarabs significantly contribute to scholarly pursuits, translation efforts, and artistic exchanges, reinforcing their role as cultural intermediaries between Islamic and Christian worlds, particularly in cities such as Toledo, Córdoba, and Seville.

Jewish Contributions and Religious Pluralism

The Jewish community continues to thrive under Umayyad rule, playing a vital role in trade, finance, and intellectual life. Their sustained contributions, along with those of Mozarabs and Muslims, create an atmosphere of remarkable religious and cultural pluralism, making Al-Andalus a beacon of coexistence and scholarly interaction during this era.

Economic Stability and Technological Progress

Technological advances, particularly through the widespread use of the Catalan forge, continue supporting economic prosperity across Mediterranean Southwest Europe. The enhanced iron production significantly bolsters agriculture, military effectiveness, and urban crafts, contributing to overall regional stability and prosperity.

Legacy of the Era

The era 832–843 CE highlights growing Carolingian political fragmentation, juxtaposed with sustained prosperity and cultural dynamism under the Umayyad emirate in Iberia. The period's vibrant cross-cultural exchanges and continued economic advancement deeply shape the evolving medieval landscape of Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (832–843 CE): Dynastic Continuity, Regional Prosperity, and Strengthened Pilgrimage Tradition

Between 832 and 843 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—comprising Galicia, northern and central Portugal, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—experienced continued political stability, economic growth, and cultural vitality toward the end of King Alfonso II’s reign (791–842 CE) and during the initial period of his successor, King Ramiro I (842–850 CE). The region solidified its central position in Christian Iberia, supported by enhanced ecclesiastical authority, sustained economic resilience, and the expanding significance of Santiago de Compostela as a major pilgrimage center.

Political and Military Developments

Succession Stability from Alfonso II to Ramiro I
The final decade of Alfonso II’s reign maintained political stability, enabling a seamless transition to Ramiro I in 842 CE. Ramiro swiftly consolidated royal authority, ensuring dynastic continuity. While initially faced with minor internal tensions, Ramiro effectively secured regional loyalty, reinforcing Asturian political unity.

Enhanced Frontier Security and Continued Islamic Pressure
Asturias continued to invest in robust border defenses, particularly along the strategic Duero frontier. While periodic skirmishes with Islamic forces from al-Andalus occurred, Asturian defensive preparations and regional alliances ensured that no significant territorial losses occurred, maintaining long-term territorial integrity.

Economic Developments

Steady Regional Economic Prosperity
Under stable political conditions, the region’s economy remained robust and productive. Rural villa-based agriculture (grain, olives, vineyards), livestock husbandry, artisanal crafts, and mining activities—particularly gold and silver extraction in Galicia and Asturias—continued to provide substantial economic stability and regional prosperity.

Consistent Maritime and Regional Trade
Coastal towns such as Bracara Augusta (Braga) and smaller ports across Galicia and northern Portugal sustained steady maritime commerce. These trading activities, although modest, maintained crucial economic continuity, enhancing the region’s integration into broader Atlantic and Mediterranean trade networks.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Expansion of Santiago de Compostela as a Pilgrimage Hub
The prominence of Santiago de Compostela as a pilgrimage destination continued to grow rapidly, significantly influencing regional identity and religious practices. The growing influx of pilgrims stimulated local economies, enhanced ecclesiastical prestige, and fostered broad cultural exchanges that profoundly shaped regional development.

Strengthened Ecclesiastical Leadership and Influence
Influential bishoprics—especially those in Braga, Lugo, Iria Flavia (Santiago de Compostela), and Asturica Augusta—further deepened their administrative and cultural roles. Bishops provided crucial social cohesion, moral guidance, educational initiatives, and community governance, further embedding orthodox Christianity into regional life.

Monastic Flourishing and Cultural Vitality
Monastic communities continued to thrive, significantly contributing to regional culture, education, and economy. Monasteries remained crucial centers for manuscript preservation, literacy, scholarship, agricultural innovation, and social welfare, profoundly shaping the region’s cultural heritage and identity.

Continued Cultural Syncretism
The persistent integration of orthodox Christianity with indigenous Celtic and Iberian traditions remained particularly robust, notably in rural Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal. These enduring practices reinforced regional identity, unity, and cultural resilience.

Civic Identity and Governance

Further Royal and Ecclesiastical Integration
Asturian governance structures under Alfonso II and Ramiro I continued integrating royal and ecclesiastical authority, maintaining significant regional autonomy while fostering cohesive civic identities. Civic allegiance increasingly centered around Asturian royal power, ecclesiastical institutions, and the pilgrimage site of Santiago de Compostela, firmly establishing Asturias as the symbolic heart of Iberian Christian resistance.

Notable Tribal Groups and Settlements

• Astures and Cantabri: Continued to provide critical political cohesion and military stability, decisively shaping Asturian identity and governance structures.

• Galicians and Lusitanians: Maintained stable local governance, economic resilience, and cultural autonomy, pragmatically cooperating with Asturian authority.

• Vascones: Maintained longstanding neutrality, territorial independence, and cultural distinctiveness, diplomatically engaging with Asturias but remaining largely insulated from broader conflicts.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 832 and 843 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Reinforced political stability and dynastic continuity, ensuring robust regional governance and territorial integrity under Alfonso II and Ramiro I.

• Experienced sustained economic prosperity, ecclesiastical prominence, and cultural flourishing, decisively shaping regional identity and medieval social structures.

• Further elevated the cultural and religious significance of Santiago de Compostela, laying the foundation for enduring pilgrimage traditions that defined the medieval and later historical identity of northern Iberia.

This era marked an essential phase in the consolidation and cultural enrichment of the Asturian kingdom, significantly shaping Atlantic Southwest Europe's medieval trajectory.

Atlantic West Europe, 832–843: Fragmentation and the Birth of West Francia

Between 832 and 843, Atlantic West Europe saw the Carolingian Empire descend into fragmentation through internal family struggles, significantly reshaping the political landscape and laying the foundations of distinct regional identities, notably in West Francia.

Political and Military Developments

• Carolingian Civil Wars

  • Emperor Louis the Pious’s sons—Lothair I, Pepin of Aquitaine, Louis the German, and later Charles the Bald—fought fiercely over succession rights, plunging the empire into civil wars.
  • At the Battle of Fontenoy (841), near Auxerre, Charles the Bald and Louis the German defeated their brother Lothair, weakening centralized authority.

• Treaty of Verdun (843)

  • The Treaty of Verdun partitioned the Carolingian Empire among Louis the Pious's surviving sons, decisively splitting the empire:
    • Charles the Bald received West Francia (later France), shaping the future identity of Atlantic West Europe.
    • Louis the German took East Francia (later Germany).
    • Lothair retained Middle Francia (stretching from Italy to the Low Countries), creating a buffer that would be contested throughout the medieval era.

• Brittany’s Increasing Autonomy

  • Nominoë of Brittany strengthened his autonomy amidst Carolingian turmoil, positioning Brittany for de facto independence.

Economic and Social Developments

• Economic Disruption
  • The civil wars damaged trade networks and agricultural productivity, though Atlantic coastal trade in cities such as Nantes and Bordeaux persisted, maintaining some economic stability.

Religious and Cultural Developments

• Cultural Fragmentation
  • The unity of the Carolingian Renaissance weakened, but monastic centers, particularly in Tours and Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, preserved intellectual traditions amidst political unrest.

Legacy

This era’s pivotal event, the Treaty of Verdun, established lasting political and cultural boundaries. West Francia emerged as the direct precursor to the Kingdom of France, laying the groundwork for Atlantic West Europe's distinct medieval identity.