The Fall of Pombal and the Restoration of the Old Order (1777–1792)

With the death of King José I of Portugal in 1777, his daughter Maria I ascended to the throne, marking the end of the era of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the Marquis of Pombal. Unlike her father, Maria I deeply resented Pombal’s policies, particularly his autocratic rule, harsh purges of the nobility, and conflicts with the Church.

One of her first acts as queen was to dismiss Pombal from power and banish him to the village of Pombal, effectively erasing his influence on the kingdom.

Undoing Pombal’s Reforms

Maria I initiated a political and social reversal, dismantling much of what Pombal had built:

• Hundreds of political prisoners were freed, many of whom had been jailed during Pombal’s purges.
• The old nobility was restored to its former status, regaining much of the power Pombal had stripped from them.
• Relations with the Holy See were fully reestablished, marking a sharp turn away from Pombal’s anti-Jesuit, secular policies.
• Laws restricting the clergy were revoked, undoing Pombal’s attempts to limit the Church’s influence in Portugal.
• Many of the state-run trading companies that Pombal had established to control the economy were abolished.

The Restoration of the Old Order

Pombal had sought to create a modern, secular, and centralized Portuguese state, free from the overwhelming influence of the nobility and the Church. However, his vision collapsed almost immediately after his removal:

• The nobility regained its privileges, once again asserting dominance over government and court politics.
• The Catholic Church, which had suffered major setbacks under Pombal, regained its former power and influence.
• The Portuguese economy returned to its traditional structure, dominated by mercantilism, landowning elites, and colonial wealth.

The End of Pombal’s Legacy

Despite his immense influence during José I’s reign, Pombal’s reforms failed to create a lasting transformation of Portuguese society. His secular, centralized vision was quickly replaced by a return to traditional governance, highlighting the fragility of his political revolution.

Conclusion – A Reactionary Reversal

Maria I’s reign was characterized by the undoing of Pombal’s rule, marking a return to Portugal’s old social and political structures. While Pombal had temporarily reshaped Portugal, his departure led to the rapid restoration of the ancien régime, proving that his reforms had never been fully accepted by the ruling elite.

Portugal cedes to Spain Fernando Poo, Annobón and the Guinea coast (modern Equatorial Guinea) in 1778, with the Treaty of El Pardo, signed between Queen Mary II of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain, in exchange for territory in the American continent.

Spain then mounts an expedition to Fernando Poo, led by the Conde de Argelejos, which remains for four months.

In October 1778, Spain installs a governor on the island (who is to stay only until 1780 when the Spanish mission leaves the island).

Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain sign the Treaty of El Pardo in 1778, which cedes Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain.

Brigadier Felipe José, Count of Arjelos, sails from Uruguay to formally take possession of Bioko from Portugal, landing on the island on October 21 1778.

After sailing for Annobón to take possession, the Count dies of disease caught on Bioko and the fever-ridden crew mutinies.

The crew lands on São Tomé instead where they are imprisoned by the Portuguese authorities after having lost over eighty percent of their men to sickness.

As a result of this disaster, Spain will hereafter be hesitant to invest heavily in their new possession.

However, despite the setback, Spaniards begin to use the island as a base for slave-hunting on the nearby mainland with the support of British merchants.

Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of what will become Equatorial Guinea is administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1780–1791): Enlightenment Reforms, Rising Tensions, and Prelude to Upheaval

From 1780 to 1791, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern and central Portugal (Lisbon), Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—experienced profound political, economic, and cultural shifts. The ongoing influence of enlightened absolutism deepened modernization efforts but also generated increasing tensions between traditional authorities and centralizing monarchies. Economic prosperity from maritime trade continued, yet underlying social unrest and regional assertiveness hinted at future upheavals, influenced significantly by the reverberations of revolutionary ideas emerging from France.

Political and Military Developments

Portugal: Post-Pombaline Adjustments

• The death of King José I in 1777 and the subsequent ascension of Queen Maria I (r.1777–1816) led to a rollback of some aggressive Pombaline reforms, relaxing tensions with the aristocracy and clergy but slowing administrative modernization.

• Political stability prevailed in Lisbon and Porto, though underlying dissatisfaction persisted among reform-minded intellectuals and middle-class merchants who favored continued progressive governance.

Spain: Enlightenment under Charles III and Charles IV

• Charles III (r.1759–1788) continued ambitious Enlightenment reforms in Spain, expanding public education, agriculture, trade liberalization, and infrastructure improvements, significantly benefiting Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque regions.

• After his death in 1788, Charles IV (r.1788–1808) ascended the throne, maintaining enlightened policies initially but gradually weakening under court intrigues and reactionary pressures, prompting disillusionment among regional elites.

Regional Autonomy and Fueros

• The Basque Country and northern Navarre maintained robust autonomy, firmly defending their fueros against attempts at fiscal and administrative centralization, emphasizing regional governance and economic independence.

Economic Developments: Continued Maritime Prosperity

Portuguese Maritime and Commercial Success

• Northern Portugal, particularly Porto, continued to thrive through expanded exports of wine, textiles, and manufactured goods, leveraging strong British and colonial trade networks.

• Lisbon solidified its commercial significance as the principal Portuguese maritime hub, experiencing increased prosperity through trade with Brazil, Africa, and Asia, despite challenges posed by growing competition.

Industrial and Commercial Expansion in Northern Spain

• Bilbao and Santander further strengthened their maritime economies through robust trade, fisheries, shipbuilding, and iron production. Economic prosperity fostered urban expansion and infrastructural improvements, enhancing regional affluence.

• Galicia’s ports, notably Vigo and A Coruña, grew through maritime trade and fishing industries, expanding their economic influence and reinforcing regional commercial vitality.

Agricultural and Rural Prosperity

• Improved agricultural productivity, due to enlightened agrarian reforms, benefited Galicia, Asturias, and northern Castile and León, stabilizing rural economies and reducing acute poverty in some areas, though rural-urban inequalities persisted.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Enlightenment Influence on Education and Culture

• Enlightenment ideals permeated education in Portugal and northern Spain, notably at the University of Coimbra, Santiago de Compostela, and Valladolid, promoting scientific inquiry, rationalism, and secular learning within orthodox Catholic parameters.

• Educational reforms facilitated the rise of a well-educated, socially engaged middle class, increasingly critical of traditional social structures and sympathetic to new revolutionary ideas emerging from France.

Artistic and Architectural Transition

• Neoclassical architecture and urban planning became predominant in Lisbon, Porto, Bilbao, and Santander, reflecting Enlightenment rationalism, symmetry, and civic ideals, transforming the urban landscapes of these cities.

• The arts flourished, especially in Lisbon and northern Portuguese cities, as patrons supported intellectual and cultural institutions, fostering a lively, enlightened cultural atmosphere.

Social and Urban Developments

Urbanization and Social Mobility

• Porto, Bilbao, and Santander experienced significant urban growth, reflecting commercial prosperity and improved infrastructure, including roads, public buildings, and civic institutions, enhancing quality of life and economic vitality.

• Increasingly affluent urban merchant and artisan classes gained influence in civic governance, challenging traditional aristocratic dominance, especially evident in cities like Porto, Lisbon, Bilbao, and Vitoria-Gasteiz.

Rising Social Tensions and Emerging Revolutionary Ideas

• Underlying social tensions intensified, driven by economic disparities, discontent with taxation policies, and inspired by revolutionary events abroad, notably the French Revolution (beginning in 1789).

• Intellectual circles in Lisbon, Porto, Valladolid, and Bilbao increasingly discussed Enlightenment ideals such as liberty, equality, and representative governance, laying the groundwork for future political unrest.

Legacy and Significance

The period from 1780 to 1791 served as a critical prelude to broader upheavals in Atlantic Southwest Europe. Enlightenment reforms continued modernizing regional economies and governance, fostering prosperity yet simultaneously deepening social tensions. The preservation of regional autonomy, particularly Basque and Navarrese fueros, reinforced distinctive regional identities, while rising intellectual currents challenged traditional political and social structures. As revolutionary ideas from France began permeating local intellectual discourse, the stage was set for significant transformations, marking this era as a turning point toward profound political and social change in the years ahead.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (1792–1803): Revolutionary Echoes, Political Upheaval, and Regional Struggles

Between 1792 and 1803, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern and central Portugal (Lisbon), Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—faced dramatic challenges stemming from the French Revolution’s ideological impact, internal political tensions, and shifting international alliances. Revolutionary fervor, growing social unrest, and economic strains reshaped regional dynamics, paving the way for profound political and social transformations in the early nineteenth century.

Political and Military Developments

Influence of Revolutionary France

• Revolutionary ideas, particularly notions of liberty, equality, and constitutional government emanating from France, spread among intellectual and middle-class circles in Lisbon, Porto, Bilbao, and Valladolid, fueling political debate and demands for reform.

• Spanish authorities in Galicia, Asturias, and the Basque Country reacted strongly against revolutionary sentiments, intensifying censorship and surveillance while preparing defenses against potential French military incursions.

Portugal’s Political Instability

• In Portugal, Queen Maria I’s deteriorating mental health after 1792 weakened political stability, creating a power vacuum partly filled by her son, João VI, who governed as regent from 1799.

• Portuguese authorities grew increasingly wary of French revolutionary influence, tightening censorship, arresting suspected revolutionaries, and aligning closely with Britain to safeguard against French aggression.

Spain: Declining Bourbon Authority

• Under King Charles IV and his influential minister, Manuel de Godoy, Spain struggled politically and militarily amid growing internal dissatisfaction, particularly pronounced in northern regions that opposed centralizing policies and resented heavy taxation.

• The Basque Country and northern Navarre, fiercely protective of their fueros, resisted Madrid’s increased demands, asserting regional autonomy and exacerbating tensions between central and regional authorities.

Economic Developments: Maritime Struggles and Fiscal Strain

Trade Disruption and Maritime Challenges

• Northern Portuguese and Spanish ports—Lisbon, Porto, Bilbao, Santander, and Vigo—suffered trade disruptions due to the Napoleonic Wars (beginning in 1799), naval blockades, and increased piracy, resulting in significant economic hardship.

• The region’s merchant classes, particularly in Porto and Bilbao, faced declining profitability from disrupted trade with Britain, France, and overseas colonies, compounding local economic struggles.

Inflation and Financial Hardship

• Inflation, driven by wartime disruptions and fiscal mismanagement, severely impacted local economies in Galicia, Asturias, and northern Castile and León, exacerbating rural poverty and fueling migration to urban areas.

• Heavy taxation imposed by Madrid and Lisbon to finance military preparedness heightened social tensions, prompting protests and occasional riots in urban areas, notably Bilbao, Lisbon, and Porto.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Continued Catholic Dominance amid Revolutionary Ideas

• The Catholic Church maintained significant influence in northern Spain and Portugal, reinforcing orthodox beliefs and actively opposing revolutionary secularism, using pulpits and educational institutions to preach against French revolutionary ideals.

• Church authorities strengthened their alliance with political power, emphasizing loyalty to the monarchy and condemning revolutionary sympathizers, thus deepening societal divisions.

Enlightenment Intellectual Tensions

• Despite official opposition, intellectual elites in Lisbon, Porto, Valladolid, and Bilbao secretly embraced Enlightenment thought and revolutionary principles, advocating constitutional reforms, representative government, and liberal economic ideas.

• Universities, particularly Coimbra in Portugal and Valladolid in Spain, became clandestine centers for intellectual debate and reformist ideas, influencing younger generations toward liberalism.

Social and Urban Developments

Social Unrest and Urban Tensions

• Urban centers like Lisbon, Porto, Bilbao, and Santander experienced growing unrest driven by economic hardship, rising unemployment, and opposition to heavy taxation, reflecting broader discontent with monarchical governance and social inequality.

• Rising revolutionary sentiments led authorities to increase repression, censorship, and surveillance in urban areas, exacerbating political tensions and alienating middle-class reformers and intellectuals.

Rural Strain and Demographic Pressures

• Galicia, Asturias, northern León, and Castile faced worsening rural economic conditions due to declining agricultural productivity, forcing significant migration to urban areas or overseas, particularly to the Americas.

• Rural discontent contributed indirectly to urban instability, as migrants sought relief in crowded cities ill-equipped to manage increased populations, heightening urban poverty and social stress.

Legacy and Significance

The period from 1792 to 1803 profoundly altered Atlantic Southwest Europe's political, economic, and social landscape. Revolutionary ideas from France intensified internal debates and fueled demands for reform, setting the stage for future liberal movements. Economic hardships, coupled with political repression, deepened regional discontent, particularly in Portugal and northern Spain. Heightened tensions between centralized authority and regional autonomy laid groundwork for significant political upheavals, including forthcoming invasions and revolutions that would fundamentally reshape the region throughout the nineteenth century.

The War of the Oranges (1801) – Portugal Caught Between France and Spain

After years of fighting alongside Portugal against Revolutionary France, Spain abruptly changed sides, making a separate peace with France at Basel in 1795 without consulting Portugal. This betrayal marked a major shift in Iberian geopolitics, leaving Portugal increasingly isolated.

By 1800, Spain went even further, signing the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso with France, becoming a full ally of Napoleon. This alliance threatened Portugal’s survival, as France and Spain now viewed it as a British satellite that needed to be neutralized.

The Ultimatum – Franco-Spanish Demands on Portugal (1801)

In February 1801, France and Spain delivered an ultimatum to Prince Regent João (acting on behalf of his mother, Maria I, who was now fully incapacitated by mental illness), demanding that Portugal:

1. Abandon its alliance with Britain.
2. Close all its ports to British ships and open them exclusively to French and Spanish vessels.
3. Hand over one-quarter of Portuguese territory as a guarantee for Spanish territories occupied by Britain.

This ultimatum was effectively a death sentence for Portugal’s sovereignty. João refused to comply, knowing that Portugal’s entire economic survival depended on British trade.

The War of the Oranges – Spain Invades (May 1801)

In May 1801, Spain, with French support, invaded Portugal from the east, launching what became known as the War of the Oranges—so called because Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy allegedly sent a basket of oranges to Queen Maria Luisa as a token of his victory.

• The Spanish army crossed into the Alentejo, capturing towns including Olivença.
• The Portuguese army, outnumbered and poorly equipped, offered resistance but was quickly overwhelmed.
• After just two weeks of fighting, Portugal was forced to negotiate peace.

The Treaty of Badajoz (June 1801) – Portugal’s Concessions

The war ended with the Treaty of Badajoz on June 6, 1801, in which Portugal was forced to make humiliating concessions:

1. Portugal had to close its ports to British ships.
2. Commercial privileges were granted to France.
3. A large war indemnity was paid to Spain and France.
4. Portugal ceded the town of Olivença and its surrounding territory to Spain, marking the only permanent territorial loss in modern Portuguese history.

A Short-Term Peace, A Long-Term Crisis

While the Treaty of Badajoz ended hostilities, it was only a temporary reprieve:

• Portugal had not fully complied with Napoleon’s demands, as it still maintained covert ties with Britain.
• The ceding of Olivença was deeply unpopular in Portugal, and the loss of the territory would remain a source of tension with Spain for centuries.
• The Napoleonic threat did not go away—just a few years later, in 1807, Napoleon would invade Portugal directly, forcing the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil.

The War of the Oranges demonstrated Portugal’s vulnerability but also its determination to resist total submission to Napoleonic France. However, greater challenges lay ahead, as the Napoleonic Wars would soon engulf Portugal in full-scale conflict.

Judicial proceedings against the conspirators of the Inconfidência Mineira have lasted from 1789 to 1792.

Lieutenant Colonel Freire de Andrade, Tiradentes, José Álvares Maciel, and eight others had been condemned to the gallows.

Seven more had been condemned to perpetual banishment in Africa, the rest have been acquitted.

Following the trial, Queen Maria I had commuted the sentences of capital punishment to perpetual banishment for all except those whose activities involved aggravated circumstances.

That is the case for Tiradentes, who takes full responsibility for the conspiracy movement and is imprisoned in Rio de Janeiro, where he is hanged on April 21, 1792.

Afterwards, his body is torn into pieces, which are sent to Vila Rica in the captaincy of Minas Gerais, to be displayed in the places where he had propagated his revolutionary ideas.

The anniversary of his death will be celebrated as a national holiday in Brazil.

The Franco-Spanish Invasion of Portugal and the Flight of the Royal Family (1807)

With Napoleon crowned Emperor in 1804, his war against Britain resumed with renewed intensity. Britain responded by declaring a naval blockade of France, aiming to cripple French trade and economy. In retaliation, Napoleon ordered all European nations to sever ties with Britain, seeking to isolate it economically.

Portugal’s Neutrality and Napoleon’s Ultimatum

• Portugal, historically allied with Britain, attempted to remain neutral, balancing between French demands and British pressure.
• Napoleon ordered Portugal to close its ports to British ships, but the Portuguese government sought a way to comply without severing ties with its oldest ally.
• This compromise position angered Napoleon, who decided that Portugal must be invaded and partitioned.

The Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807) – The Plan to Divide Portugal

In October 1807, Napoleon signed a secret treaty with Spain at Fontainebleau, laying out a plan to invade and partition Portugal:

• One-third of Portugal would go to France.
• One-third would be annexed to Spain.
• One-third would be given to Manuel de Godoy, Spain’s chief minister, as a personal reward for his loyalty to Napoleon.

This agreement cemented Spain’s role as a French ally in the coming invasion.

The Franco-Spanish Invasion (November 1807)

• On November 17, 1807, a Franco-Spanish army under General Andoche Junot crossed the Portuguese border and marched on Lisbon.
• The British, unable to defend their ally, could do little to prevent the fall of Portugal.
• With Lisbon defenseless, Prince Regent João (the future King João VI) and the Portuguese royal family decided to flee to Brazil, ensuring the continuity of the Portuguese monarchy overseas.
• On November 27, 1807, Junot’s army entered Lisbon and took control, marking the first French occupation of Portugal.

The Portuguese Monarchy in Exile – A Unique Response

The flight of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil was unprecedented in European history. Unlike other monarchs who had been toppled by Napoleon, the Portuguese rulers retained their sovereignty by relocating their government to Rio de Janeiro.

This decision not only preserved the Portuguese Empire but also led to the eventual transformation of Brazil into an independent kingdom, shaping the country’s future.

Consequences – The Napoleonic Wars Arrive in Iberia

The occupation of Portugal marked the beginning of the Peninsular War (1807–1814), one of the most brutal and complex conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars. Within months, Napoleon would turn on Spain as well, leading to open rebellion and British intervention, changing the course of the war in Western Europe.

Napoleon believed Portugal had been subdued, but in reality, the war was just beginning.

The Second French Invasion of Portugal (March–May 1809) and Wellington’s Counteroffensive

In March 1809, Marshal Nicolas Soult led a renewed French invasion of Portugal, advancing from Galicia in the north. This marked Napoleon’s second attempt to subjugate Portugal, following the failed occupation of 1807–1808.

The French Advance – Soult Captures Porto

• Soult’s army crossed into Portugal from Galicia, quickly occupying Chaves.
• The French then advanced toward Porto, Portugal’s second-largest city.
• On March 29, 1809, Soult captured Porto, forcing a chaotic Portuguese retreat across the Douro River.

Wellington Returns – The British-Portuguese Counteroffensive

• In April 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) arrived in Portugal to take full command of the British-Portuguese forces.
• Recognizing that Soult’s army was vulnerable, Wellington launched a rapid counteroffensive, forcing the French to retreat northward.
• By May 12, 1809, Wellington executed a brilliant crossing of the Douro River, retaking Porto and sending Soult into full retreat.
• The French, cut off from their supply lines, abandoned much of their artillery and baggage as they fled back into Galicia.

Victory at Talavera and Wellington’s Rise (July 27–28, 1809)

• After driving Soult out of Portugal, Wellington turned his attention to Spanish territory, joining forces with the Spanish army.
• On July 27–28, 1809, the British and Spanish armies defeated Marshal Victor’s French forces at the Battle of Talavera in central Spain.
• Despite suffering heavy casualties, this victory marked Wellington’s first major battlefield success in Spain, solidifying his reputation as the leading Allied general in the Peninsular War.
• In recognition of his achievements, Wellesley was elevated to the rank of Duke of Wellington.

Conclusion – The French Are Driven from Portugal Again

The successful defense of Portugal in 1809 marked a turning point in the Peninsular War:

• Portugal remained secure under British and Portuguese control, despite repeated French invasions.
• The Anglo-Portuguese army was now a disciplined and effective force, ready to support the Spanish resistance.
• Wellington emerged as the dominant Allied commander, setting the stage for future victories against Napoleon’s forces in the Iberian Peninsula.

This campaign reaffirmed Portugal’s resilience and Britain’s commitment to defeating Napoleon in Iberia, leading toward the final liberation of Spain and Portugal in 1813–1814.