Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1924–1935 CE): Consolidation of Authoritarianism and Social Change

The era from 1924 to 1935 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—including the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is dominated by the consolidation of authoritarian regimes, significant social transformations, economic challenges, and cultural evolutions.

Italy: Consolidation of Fascism and Totalitarian Rule

Under Benito Mussolini, Italy solidifies its transformation into a fascist state. Between 1924 and 1926, Mussolini systematically dismantles democratic institutions, suppresses opposition, and establishes a totalitarian regime characterized by aggressive nationalism, centralized control, and state intervention in the economy.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 significantly stabilizes Mussolini’s regime by resolving the longstanding "Roman Question." The treaty establishes the Vatican City as an independent sovereign state and confirms Catholicism as Italy’s official religion, greatly enhancing Mussolini’s domestic legitimacy.

Despite authoritarian rule, Italy embarks on substantial modernization projects, notably in infrastructure, agriculture, and industry. Fascist policies promote demographic growth, social discipline, and militarization, setting the stage for Italy’s aggressive foreign policy leading toward war in the late 1930s.

Spain: The End of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship and the Rise of the Second Republic

General Miguel Primo de Rivera initially stabilizes Spain through authoritarian measures after his 1923 coup, but economic hardship, political discontent, and mounting opposition erode his regime’s support. In 1930, Primo de Rivera resigns under immense pressure, leading to the collapse of his military dictatorship.

Following a brief transitional period under King Alfonso XIII, Spain’s political landscape undergoes a dramatic shift. In April 1931, the monarchy is abolished, and the Second Spanish Republic is proclaimed. The republic initiates extensive reforms aiming at secularization, regional autonomy, land redistribution, and improved labor rights. These measures, however, sharply polarize Spanish society, setting the stage for escalating political tensions and violence.

Andorra: Continued Stability and Economic Development

Andorra continues its trajectory of stable governance and gradual economic modernization, maintaining its unique political arrangement under the dual sovereignty of the French President and the Bishop of Urgell. Benefiting from relative insulation from wider European turmoil, Andorra sees improvements in infrastructure and tourism, gradually integrating further into regional economic networks.

Malta: Constitutional Advances and Rising National Consciousness

In Malta, nationalist movements advocating greater autonomy from British colonial rule gain significant ground. The 1921 constitution, granting responsible self-government, faces setbacks due to political conflicts and colonial intervention but ultimately strengthens Maltese national identity and political awareness.

Malta experiences significant social change as labor movements grow stronger and political parties emerge advocating workers’ rights and greater autonomy, laying crucial foundations for Malta's eventual independence aspirations.

Portugal: Political Instability and the Rise of Salazar’s Estado Novo

Portugal endures chronic political instability following the collapse of the First Republic (1910–1926). Military coups and frequent government changes culminate in the military coup of 1926, ushering in a dictatorial regime under military leadership. In 1932, economist António de Oliveira Salazar becomes prime minister, establishing the authoritarian Estado Novo regime.

Salazar’s Estado Novo emphasizes conservative Catholic values, economic austerity, national unity, and a corporatist economic model. This regime brings political stability and economic control but severely restricts political freedoms and suppresses dissent, profoundly reshaping Portuguese society and governance for decades.

Conclusion: Era of Authoritarian Consolidation and Social Transformation

Between 1924 and 1935, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences an era defined by the consolidation of authoritarian regimes in Italy and Portugal, a tumultuous but transformative republican experiment in Spain, and growing nationalist aspirations in Malta. Andorra continues its steady evolution, successfully balancing tradition and modernization. This period fundamentally reshapes the political, economic, and social fabric of the region, influencing developments for generations to come.