Constantine VII, renowned for his abilities as a writer and scholar, has written, or had commissioned, the works De Ceremoniis ("On Ceremonies"), describing the kinds of court ceremonies (also described later in a more negative light by Liutprand of Cremona); De Administrando Imperio ("On the Administration of the Empire"), giving advice on running the Empire internally and on fighting external enemies; and a history of the Empire covering events following the death of the chronographer Theophanes the Confessor in 817.

Among his historical works is a history eulogizing the reign and achievements of his grandfather, Basil I (Vita Basilii).

These books are insightful and of interest to the historian, sociologist, and anthropologist as a source of information about nations neighboring the Empire.

They also offer a fine insight into the Emperor himself.

Constantine has had active diplomatic relationships with foreign courts, including those of the caliph of Córdoba, Abd ar-Rahman III and of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor.

Constantine had been visited by Olga of Kiev, regent of the Kievan Rus' in the autumn of 957.

The reasons for this voyage have never been clarified; but she had been baptized a Christian with the name Helena, and sought Christian missionaries to encourage her people to adopt Christianity.

Constantine VII dies at Constantinople in November 959.

It is rumored that Constantine had been poisoned by his daughter-in-law Theophano or his so, who now ascends the imperial throne as Romanos II.

A politically incapable ruler, he will leave affairs of state to the eunuch Joseph Bringas and military affairs to Nikephoros Phokas.

Al-Mu'izz has sent his general Jawhar westward in the years 958 and 959 to reduce Fés and other places where the authority of the Fatimid caliph had been repudiated; after a successful expedition, Jawhar advances to the Atlantic.

The authority of al-Mu'izz, the most powerful of the Fatimid caliphs, is acknowledged over the greater part of the region now comprising Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, as well as the island of Sicily.

Jawhar al-Siqilli has conquered most of the north of modern Morocco and Algeria over the past two years.

In particular, he has conquered the cities of Tanger, …

…Sijilmasa and …

…Tlemcen.

The Division of Lotharingia: The End of a Unified Duchy (959)

By 959, Bruno the Great, the Duke of Lotharingia and Archbishop of Cologne, makes a critical administrative decision that permanently ends the unity of Lotharingia. As one of the last dukes of the whole region, Bruno appoints two local nobles, Frederick and Godfrey, as margraves, effectively splitting the duchy into Upper and Lower Lotharingia.

Background: Lotharingia’s Shifting Allegiances

• Originally part of Middle Francia, Lotharingia had long been contested between East and West Francia since the Treaty of Meerssen (870) and the Treaty of Ribemont (880).
• It had shifted from East Francia (Germany) to West Francia (France) and back again, remaining a hotly disputed territory.
• Under Bruno’s rule, Lotharingia was stabilized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, but its vast size and strategic importance made it difficult to govern as a single duchy.

The Division of Lotharingia (959)

To ensure more effective rule, Bruno appoints:

1. Frederick I as Margrave of Upper Lotharingia, later recognized as Duke of Upper Lorraine.
2. Godfrey I as Margrave of Lower Lotharingia, later known as Duke of Lower Lorraine.

This administrative division is meant to improve governance and military defense but ultimately results in:

• The permanent split of Lotharingia into two distinct duchies.
• A further weakening of centralized control, as regional lords gain more autonomy.
• Continued fragmentation, making Lotharingia a battleground for German, French, and local noble interestsin the following centuries.

Legacy: The Last Duke of a United Lotharingia

• Bruno is one of the last rulers to control all of Lotharingia as a single entity.
• His decision in 959 shapes the future of the region, ensuring that Upper and Lower Lorraine evolve as separate feudal entities.
• This fragmentation reinforces feudal decentralization, marking another step toward the eventual dissolution of the Carolingian world and the rise of independent regional powers.

With Bruno’s death in 965, the once-mighty Lotharingia is permanently divided, reflecting the broader breakdown of centralized authority in medieval Europe.

Godrey becomes margrave of Lower Lotharingia.

Both Frederick and Godfrey in 965 will be recognized as dukes after Bruno's death.

The two duchies will only be reunited between 1033 and 1044 under Gothelo I, Duke of Lotharingia.

Edgar immediately recalls Dunstan (who will eventually be canonized as St. Dunstan) from exile to have him made Bishop of Worcester (and subsequently Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury).

Dunstan will remain Edgar's advisor throughout his reign.

Zhao Kuangyin’s usurpation of the Later Zhou Dynasty throne in 960 brings to and end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China.

The amount of registered soldiers in the Chinese army at this time is some 378,000.

This marks the end of the post-Tang military regimes known as the Five Dynasties with the seizure of the imperial throne by general Zhao Guangyin, who founds the Song dynasty.

Zhao places the military under civil administration to prevent a recurrence of the militarism that had toppled the Tang.

Under Zhao and subsequent Song rulers, the aristocrats will lose their domination of government to the emergent scholar-gentry class, who derive their power from landholding and extensive educational training.