Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of the famous triumvir and proconsul of Macedonia, had fought first with Sextus Pompeius and Mark Antony before defecting to Octavian.

Octavian had then appointed him as his colleague as consul for 30 BCE, even though Crassus had not been praetor, the office that was traditionally a prerequisite for the consulship.

Dispatched to Macedonia in 29 BCE, he moves against the Bastarnae, a tribe of Scythian ethnicity who have crossed the Danube and threatened Roman allies in neighboring Thrace.

He drives them back toward the Danube and finally defeats them in pitched battle, killing their King Deldo in single combat.

By Roman tradition, he is thus entitled to the Spolia opima, but Octavian blocks the privilege, apparently wishing to downplay the successes of individual generals in favor of his own prestige.

Crassus likewise does not receive the agnomen of Scythicus to commemorate his victory.

However, Octavian eventually does grant him a triumph upon his return to Rome.

The Serdi (Sardi), a Celtic tribe, had in the eighth century BCE established a settlement near the geographical center of the Balkans region, in the Sofia Basin, a troughlike valley in the western part of the country.

The Romans conquer this community soon after 29 BCE and name it Serdica (Greek: Sardica).

Octavian and Agrippa hold a census (the first of three during the reign) of the civil population in 28.

They also reduce the Senate from about one thousand to eight hundred (later six hundred) compliant members; and Octavian is appointed its president.

Octavian realizes that the governing class will welcome him as the terminator of civil war only if he conceals his autocracy beneath provisions avowedly harking back to republican traditions.

Octavian, now Augustus Caesar, gives the ancient city of Samaria to Herod, who expands and renovates the city in 27 BCE and names it "Sebaste", meaning "Augustus", in the Emperor's honor.

An assassination attempt on Herod is foiled in this year.

The former fishing village of Pola, located on the Adriatic Sea at the southern tip of the Istrian peninsula, about sixty miles (one hundred kilometers) south of Tergeste (modern Trieste), between 46 and 45 BCE had been elevated to colonial rank as the tenth region of the Roman Republic, under Julius Caesar.

The town had grown during that time and had at its zenith a population of about thirty thousand, becoming a significant Roman port with a large surrounding area under its jurisdiction.

The town in 42 BCE  during the civil war of the triumvirate of Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus against Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius, had taken the side of Cassius, since the town had been founded by Cassius Longinus, brother of Cassius.

The town had been demolished after Octavian's victory.

Soon rebuilt at the request of Octavian's daughter Iulia, it was then called Colonia Pietas Iulia Pola Pollentia Herculanea'.

Great classical constructions are built of which a few remain.

Construction begins on a great amphitheater, Pula Arena (completed in CE 68), much of it still standing to this day.

The Romans also supply the city with a water supply and sewage systems, and fortify the city with a wall with ten gates, a few of which still remain: the Gate of Hercules (in which the names of the founders of the city are engraved), the Twin Gates, and the triumphal Arch of the Sergii.

The arch commemorates three brothers of the Sergii family, specifically Lucius Sergius Lepidus, a tribune serving in the twenty-ninth legion that participated in the Battle of Actium and in 27 BCE disbanded.

This suggests an approximate date of construction.

The arch stands behind the original naval gate of the early Roman colony.

The Sergii are a powerful family of officials in the colony and for centuries will retain their power.

Octavian has fought three campaigns in Illyria and Dalmatia from 35 BCE to 33 BCE.

The first mention of the province of Illyricum occurs in the context of Augustan settlement of 27 BCE, when it is assigned as a propraetorial province to imperial control.

The Romans divide the lands that make up present-day Albania among the provinces of Macedonia, …

… Dalmatia, and …

…Epirus.

Nimes, which derives its name from that of a spring in the Roman village, is located on the Via Domitia, a Roman road constructed in 118 BCE that connects Italy to Spain.

The hill named Mt.

Cavalier is the site of the early oppidum, which gave birth to the city.

During the third and second centuries BCE, a surrounding wall was built, closed at the summit by a dry-stone tower, which was later incorporated into the masonry of the Tour Magne.

The Wars of Gaul and the subsequent fall of Marseille in 49 BCE had allowed Nîmes to regain its autonomy under Rome.

Veterans of the Roman legions who had served Julius Caesar in his Nile campaigns, at the end of fifteen years of soldiering, had been given plots of land to cultivate on the plain of Nîmes, which became a Roman colony sometime before 28 BCE, as witnessed by the earliest coins, which bear the abbreviation NEM.

COL, "Colony of Nemausus.

Soon after the residents of Nimes receive Roman citizenship, the city is replanned with an organized street grid.

The constitutional basis of Octavian's power will remain a continuous succession of consulships from 31 until 23 BCE, but he he ostensibly “transfers the State to the free disposal of the Senate and people” in January 27, earning the misleading, though outwardly plausible, tribute that he has restored the republic.

The Senate implores him not to abandon the state—which he has absolutely no intention of doing.

At the same time he makes this purely theatrical gesture, he obtains from the Senate a ten-year tenure of an area of government (provincia) comprising Spain, Gaul, and Syria, the three regions containing the bulk of the army.

The Senate grants Octavian a number of prerogatives that legitimize his position, awarding him the military command (imperium; hence the modern term emperor).

The remaining provinces are to be governed by proconsuls appointed by the Senate in the old republican fashion.

Octavian, however, believes that his supreme prestige—crystallized in the meaningful term auctoritas—safeguards him against any defiance by these personages; and he is indeed able, more or less indirectly, to influence their appointments, just as he will be able (on the rare occasions when he regards it as desirable) to influence the appointments to the consulships and other metropolitan offices that continue to exist in “republican” fashion.

Four days after these measures, his surname of Caesar, acquired through adoption in Julius' will, is supplemented by “Augustus,” an appellation with an antique religious ring, believed to be linked etymologically with auctoritas and with the ancient practice of augury.

The word augustus is often contrasted with humanus; its adoption as the title representing the new order cleverly indicates, in an extraconstitutional fashion, his superiority over the rest of mankind.

With the aid of writers such as Virgil, Livy, and Horace, all of whom in their different ways shared the same ideas, he will show his patriotic veneration of the old Italian faith by reviving many of its ceremonials and repairing numerous temples.

The republic is dead, replaced by Octavian with the principate, "rule by the first citizen:” a monarchy disguised as a republic, with the princeps (the emperor) ostensibly ruling by commission from the Senate and the people.

Rome’s jurisconsults, prominent citizens who find the study and interpretation of the law a satisfying and respected pursuit, have great prestige, and are regularly consulted by officials and laymen alike.

With the establishment of the principate, Octavian grants certain jurisconsults the authority to issue responses to legal queries as though he himself had been asked.

At least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BCE, it has been a habit of many Roman generals to choose from the ranks a private force of Italians (Roman citizens and Latins), consisting of both infantry and cavalry, to act as guards of the tent or the person.

The term Praetorian derives from the tent of the commanding general or praetor of a Roman army in the field—the praetorium.

In time, this cohort had come to be known as the cohors praetoria, and various notable figures possessed one, including Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Augustus (Octavian).

As Caesar had discovered with the Legio X Equestris, a powerful unit more dangerous than its fellow legions is desirable in the field.

While Augustus understands the need to have a protector in the maelstrom of Rome, he is careful to uphold the Republican veneer of his regime.

Thus, from the ranks of the legions throughout the provinces, he allows only nine cohorts to be formed, originally of five hundred, later increased to one thousand men each, and only three kept on duty at any given time in the capital.

A small number of detached cavalry units (turmae, sing.

turma) of thirty men each are also organized.

While they patrol inconspicuously in the palace and major buildings, the others are stationed in the towns surrounding Rome; no threats are possible from these individual cohorts.