The Middle East: 45 BCE–CE 99

Roman-Parthian Rivalry and Cultural Transitions

Following Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, his intended campaign against the Parthian Empire to avenge Rome’s earlier defeat at Carrhae is abandoned. In the ensuing power struggles of the Roman Republic, Parthia seizes the opportunity to attack Roman-controlled territories, capturing Syria and installing Antigonus as king and high priest in Judea. This shift intensifies the Roman-Parthian rivalry in the region. Roman response comes through generals like Publius Ventidius Bassus, who drives the Parthians out of Roman territory, and Mark Antony, whose subsequent campaigns in Atropatene (Iranian Azerbaijan) end disastrously due to logistical failures.

Despite these setbacks, Roman influence remains strong in the region. Under Augustus, a diplomatic settlement is reached with Parthia, stabilizing borders and setting the Euphrates River as a mutual frontier. This diplomatic equilibrium is periodically disrupted by internal Parthian conflicts, notably the civil war beginning around 32 BCE when Tiridates challenges Phraates IV.

In the first century CE, tensions over Armenia, a key strategic buffer state, dominate Roman-Parthian relations. Under Emperor Nero, Rome briefly loses control when the Parthians install Tiridates I on the Armenian throne in CE 53. After years of warfare, Rome concedes to a diplomatic compromise, allowing a Parthian prince on Armenia’s throne, subject to Roman approval—a lasting source of contention between the empires.

Culturally, this era sees the introduction and spread of Christianity in the region, particularly on the island of Cyprus, traditionally credited to the apostles Paul and native Barnabas in CE 45. Roman occupation, aimed primarily at economic exploitation, inadvertently stimulates economic growth and urban development, particularly after Emperor Augustus rebuilds the earthquake-devastated city of Salamis in 15 BCE.

Parthian rulers, notably Vologases I (51–78 CE), actively resist the Hellenization policies of previous eras, promoting indigenous Iranian traditions, religion, and languages. This revival includes founding new cities such as Vologesocerta and commissioning collections of ancient Zoroastrian texts. Simultaneously, the publication of significant works like Pedanius Dioscorides' De Materia Medica around 70 CE highlights the continued intellectual exchange within the broader Hellenistic and Roman-influenced world.

By the end of this period, the Parthian empire under Pacorus II (ruled 78–105 CE) reestablishes stability after intermittent civil conflicts. The continued diplomatic, cultural, and economic interactions between Rome and Parthia profoundly influence the Middle East’s historical trajectory, setting the stage for centuries of dynamic interchange, rivalry, and coexistence.

Rome had conquered the Armenian Empire by 30 BCE, and Armenia has often be a pawn of the Romans in campaigns against their Central Asian enemies, the Parthians.

However, a new dynasty, the Arsacids, takes power in Armenia in CE 53 under the Parthian king, Tiridates, who defeats Roman forces in 62.

Rome's Emperor Nero now conciliates the Parthians by personally crowning Tiridates king of Armenia.

Armenia for much of its subsequent history will not be united under a single sovereign but will usually be divided between empires and among local Armenian rulers.

The Anatolian provinces enjoy prosperity and security after the accession of the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BCE -CE 14), and for generations thereafter.

All of Anatolia except Armenia, which is a Roman client-state, is integrated into the imperial system by CE 43.

The cities are administered by local councils and send delegates to provincial assemblies that advise the Roman governors.

Their inhabitants are citizens of a cosmopolitan world state, subject to a common legal system and sharing a common Roman identity.

Roman in allegiance and Greek in culture, the region nonetheless retains its ethnic complexity.

Caesar, after ensuring victory in his civil war, had planned a campaign into the Parthian Empire in 44 BCE to avenge the earlier defeat of a Roman army led by Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae.

Caesar's plan had been, after a brief pacification of Dacia, to continue east into Parthian territory.

Caesarian rule over the Republic had been effectively ensured by the defeat of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi.

Shortly after, however, with the triumvirs preoccupied with the revolt of Sextus Pompey in Sicily, Parthia attacks Roman-controlled Syria and the client kingdom of Judea.

The Judean high priest and puppet Roman ruler, Hyrcanus II, is overthrown and sent as prisoner to Seleucia, and the pro-Parthian Hasmonean Antigonus is installed in his place.

Antigonus is the only remaining son of former king Aristobulus II, who the Romans had deposed when they installed the weaker Hyrcanus II as high priest (but not king) in 63 BCE.

Antigonus, upon capturing Hyrcanus II, bites off his uncle's ears to disqualify him from ever again serving as high priest.

The Parthians ally with Quintus Labienus, son of Caesar's former general and later antagonist Titus Labienus, penetrating deep into the western Anatolia and defeating a Roman army under Decidius Saxa.

They are, however, defeated in turn by a veteran army led by Publius Ventidius Bassus, who drives the invaders from Roman territory.

Herod, the son-in-law of Hyrcanus, returns in 37 BCE to Judea with the aid of Mark Antony, Triumvir and lover of Egyptian Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII, and recaptures Jerusalem.

The Sicilian revolt ends the following year in a Triumvirate victory.

Antony now goes on to attack the Parthian Empire itself, marching into Atropatene (present-day Iranian Azerbaijan) with some one hundred thousand legionaries, aided by the Roman client kings in Armenia, Galatia, Cappadocia and sovereign Pontus.

The campaign proves a disaster, however, after a Roman slip-up at Phraaspa, capital of Atropatene, and thousands of Romans and auxiliaries die during the retreat due to the cold winter.

Antony’s army loses more than a quarter of its strength in the course of the campaign.

Antony invades Armenia, gain with Egyptian money, this time successfully.

On his return in 34 BCE, a mock Roman Triumph is celebrated in the streets of Alexandria: the parade through the city is a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration.

The whole city is summoned for the finale to hear a very important political statement by Antony, who, surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, ends his alliance with Octavian.

Near East (45–34 BCE): Roman-Parthian Rivalry and Jewish Turmoil

In 44 BCE, following his victory in the Roman civil war, Julius Caesar planned a campaign against the Parthian Empire to avenge Rome’s earlier defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. However, Caesar’s assassination prevented these ambitions from being realized. In the resulting power vacuum, Parthia took advantage by attacking Roman-controlled territories, notably Syria and the client kingdom of Judea. The Judean high priest and Roman ally, Hyrcanus II, was captured and mutilated by the pro-Parthian Hasmonean claimant Antigonus, effectively ending his ability to serve as high priest.

The Parthians, allied with Quintus Labienus, penetrated deep into western Anatolia, defeating the Roman general Decidius Saxa. The Roman Republic, under the command of Publius Ventidius Bassus, responded decisively, driving the invaders out and stabilizing the region. In 37 BCE, Herod, son-in-law of Hyrcanus, returned to Judea with the backing of Mark Antony, a triumvir and ally of Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, successfully recapturing Jerusalem and establishing himself as the client king.

Antony then launched an ambitious campaign against Parthia itself, funded by Egyptian resources. His invasion of Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan) in 36 BCE ended disastrously at Praaspa, resulting in severe Roman losses during the harsh winter retreat. Despite this, Antony successfully invaded and subdued Armenia two years later. On returning to Alexandria in 34 BCE, Antony held a lavish mock triumph, publicly severing his alliance with Octavian, thereby setting the stage for the impending Roman civil war.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 45 to 34 BCE significantly intensified Roman-Parthian rivalry and reshaped the political landscape of the Near East, notably in Judea. The decisive actions of Roman commanders, coupled with the strategic maneuverings of local rulers like Herod, established new power dynamics, laying the groundwork for the lasting Roman dominance and profoundly influencing the cultural and political trajectories of the region.

Antony, after invading Cilicia and Syria with an army of one hundred thousand legionnaires in 36 BCE, and hoping to further avenge the death of Crassus,  launches an invasion of Parthia's ally Media Atropatene (southwest of the Caspian, named Atropatene after one of Alexander's generals, Atropates, who had established a small kingdom there).

Crossing the Armenian mountains in winter without the support of the Armenian king, his supply train is continuously raided by the Parthians, who destroy his siege engines.

Failing in his attempt to capture the Parthian fortress of Praspa, he is forced to retreat with severe losses to his legions.

Artavasdes I, king of Media Atropatene, is the ally of the Parthian king Phraates IV when Antony leads his campaign against Parthia in 36 BCE,

Antony leads his troops from Zeugma northward into Armenia and then invades the domain of Artavasdes I. Antony does not want to attack Parthia from the west, which is the shortest way, but—surprisingly—from the north.

Antony allegedly uses this strategy on the advice of Artavasdes II of Armenia, the enemy of Artavasdes I.

Antony moves with his army in fast marches to Phraaspa (possibly Zahhak Castle) , the strongest fortress in Media Atropatene, where Artavasdes I has gotten his family to safety.

Artavasdes I has meanwhile joined the army of Phraates IV.

Antony is not able to take Phraaspa and besieges the city, but Artavasdes I and the Parthian commander Monaeses destroy two legions of Antony's general, Oppius Statianus, who had slowly followed with the siege machines of Antony's troops.

As Antony cannot capture Phraaspa without these machines, he is forced to withdraw and Parthia is not invaded.

Antony, again with Egyptian money, and believing himself betrayed by Artavasdes II of Armenia, has concluded a treaty of alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, who had maintained his ground against the Romans but his domain had been severely ravaged.

In addition, his stronger ally Phraates IV had treated him with condescension and given him very little booty.

To deepen this friendship Alexander Helios, the son of Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt, is betrothed in 34 BCE to Artavasdes’ daughter Iotapa, although both are infants.

Antony now invades the Armenian kingdom and takes Artavasdes II prisoner.

Social bonds in Rome have been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, under the alluring prospect of vast wealth attainable by plunder and corruption.

There have been a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BCE, when the final war of the Roman Reublic ends.

The alliance between Mark Antony and Octavian had already been severely tested by Antony's abandonment of Octavia and their children in favor of his former lover Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt (Antony and Cleopatra had met in 41 BCE, an interaction that resulted in twins).

Octavia after 36 BCE had returned to Rome with the daughters of her second marriage.

On several occasions she has acted as a political adviser and negotiator between her husband and brother.

She had in 35 BCE supplied him with men and troops to be used in his eastern campaigns.

After Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BCE, Mark Antony had made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia; he had also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts which Octavian uses to persuade the Roman Senate that Antony has ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.

When Octavian becomes consul once again on January 31, 33 BCE, he opens the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.

Defecting consuls and senators rush over to the side of Antony in disbelief of the propaganda (which turns out to be true).

The triumvirate formed by the Ceasarians Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus officially ends on the last day of 33 BCE, although Antony continues to call himself triumvir on his coins.

Lepidus had been forcibly retired from the triumvirate in 36, and Octavian, unlike Antony, professes no longer to be employing its powers.

There has been friction, since the expanding Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire had come into contact in the mid-first century BCE, betwen the two great powers over the control of the various states lying between them.

The largest and most important of these is the Kingdom of Armenia.

Tacitus says that in 20 BCE, the Armenians sent messengers to Roman Emperor Augustus to tell him that they no longer wanted Artaxias II as their king, and asked that his brother Tigranes III (then in Roman custody in Alexandria, Egypt) be installed in his place.

Augustus readily agrees, and sends a large army under Tiberius to depose Artaxias II.

Before they arrive, however, Artaxias II is assassinated by some of his other relatives, and the Romans put Tigranes III on the throne unopposed.

Tiberius is sent East under Marcus Agrippa in 20 BCE.

Around the time that Octavian had been named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor, Tiridates II of Parthia had briefly overthrown Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads.

Tiridates had fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him.

The Parthians had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BCE) (at the Battle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BCE), and Mark Antony (36 BCE).

After several years of negotiation, Tiberius leads a sizable force into Armenia, presumably with the goal of establishing it as a Roman client-state and as a threat on the Roman-Parthian border.

In negotiations conducted in 20 BCE, Phraates arranges for the release of his kidnapped son.

In return, the Romans receive the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BCE, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.

The Parthians view this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince.

Armenia remains a neutral territory between the two powers.

Augustus hails the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda is celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta.