Emperor Gaozong dispatches a military campaign led by Su Dingfang.

The crushing defeat of Ashina Helu at the Battle of the Irtysh River defeat ends the Western Turkic Khaganate, strengthens Tang control of Xinjiang, and leads to Tang suzerainty over the western Turks.

Constans II uses the respite provided by the Muslim civil war to shore up his defenses and initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, is divided.

The themata, or themes, will form the backbone of the imperial defensive system for centuries to come.

Ali's concession at the Battle of Siffin arouses the anger of a large group of his followers.

Disappointed with 'Ali's failure to insist on his right to rule, they protest, Qur (judgment) belongs to God alone; and believe that arbitration would be a repudiation of the Qur'anic dictum (49:9) "If one party rebels against the other, fight against that which rebels”.

A small number of these pietists (kharaju) withdraw to the village of Harura' under the leadership of Ibn Wahb and, when arbitration proves disastrous to 'Ali, are joined near Nahrawan by a larger group.

These Kharijites (”Seceders”), as they come to be known, are opposed equally to the claims of Ali and to those of Muawiyah.

Constantine-Silvanus appears to have been the founder, in 657, of the community of Paulicians, a dualistic Christian sect whose name derives either from Saint Paul, in the interpretation of whom they follow Marcion, or from a Manichaean preacher called Paul, sometimes confused with Paul of Samosata.

The Paulicians believe in two gods, one good and one evil, and teach that all matter is evil.

They deny the humanity of Jesus and reject the Old Testament, Catholic hierarchical order, and the notion of tradition.

The Paulicians, centered in Armenia, maintain that faith in Christ, who was an angel and therefore incapable of crucifixion, saves people from judgment.

Pope Eugene, who dies at Rome on June 1 after a reign of nearly two and a half years, is succeeded by Vitalian as the seventy-sixth pope.

Like Eugene, Vitalian tries to restore the connection with Constantinople by making friendly advances to Emperor Constans II and to prepare the way for the settlement of the Monothelite controversy.

He sends letters (synodica) announcing his elevation to the Emperor and to Patriarch Peter of Constantinople, who is inclined to Monothelitism.

The Emperor confirms the privileges of the Holy See as head of the Catholic Church and sends to Rome a codex of the Gospels in a cover of gold richly ornamented with precious stones as a goodwill gesture.

The Fall of Grimoald the Elder and the Execution of Childebert the Adopted (657 CE)

Following the death of Sigebert III in 656 CE, Grimoald the Elder, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, attempts to usurp the Merovingian throne by installing his own son, Childebert the Adopted, as king. However, his coup provokes widespread opposition from the Neustrian monarchy, leading to his capture and execution by Clovis II, King of Neustria.

1. The Usurpation of the Austrasian Throne (656 CE)

• After exiling Dagobert II to an Irish monastery, Grimoald places his son, Childebert the Adopted, on the throne of Austrasia.
• This move violates the Merovingian tradition of hereditary rule, alarming both Neustrian and Austrasian nobles, as the Mayors of the Palace were meant to serve, not rule.
• The usurpation marks the first major attempt by an aristocratic faction to replace the Merovingian dynasty, setting a precedent for later Carolingian ambitions.

2. The Neustrians Retaliate: The Capture and Execution of Grimoald and Childebert

• Clovis II of Neustria, viewing Grimoald’s actions as an existential threat to Merovingian legitimacy, orders his arrest.
• Grimoald is captured, possibly betrayed by Austrasian nobles who remained loyal to the Merovingian line.
• Childebert the Adopted is also seized, bringing an abrupt end to his short-lived reign in Austrasia.
• Both are executed in 657 CE, decisively restoring Merovingian rule over Austrasia.

3. The Aftermath: The Merovingians Reassert Control

• With Grimoald dead, the Neustrian rulers, led by Clovis II and his successor, Chlothar III, reestablish Neustrian dominance over Austrasia.
• Austrasia falls under the control of Neustrian-backed mayors, weakening the autonomy of the Austrasian nobility—at least temporarily.
• The Merovingian dynasty survives, though its power continues to decline in favor of the Mayors of the Palace.

4. The Long-Term Impact: A Prelude to Carolingian Rule

• Though Grimoald’s attempt to replace the Merovingians fails, his actions demonstrate that real power now lies with the Mayors of the Palace, not the kings themselves.
• This event foreshadows the successful Carolingian coup of the 8th century, when Pepin the Short, another Austrasian Mayor of the Palace, will finally depose the last Merovingian king.

Conclusion: A Failed Usurpation but a Sign of Things to Come

The capture and execution of Grimoald the Elder and Childebert the Adopted in 657 CE restore Merovingian rule over Austrasia, but they also reveal the growing weakness of the monarchy. Although Clovis II successfully removes the usurpers, the Neustrian and Austrasian nobility continue to erode royal authority, paving the way for the eventual rise of the Carolingians and the end of the Merovingian dynasty.

The Death of Clovis II and the Regency of Queen Balthild (657 CE)

In 657 CE, Clovis II, King of Neustria and Burgundy, dies, leaving his five-year-old son, Chlothar III, as his successor. Due to the young king’s minority, real power falls to his mother, Queen Balthild, who serves as regent, making her one of the most influential figures in the Frankish realm during this period.

1. The Regency of Queen Balthild

• As queen regent, Balthild governs Neustria and Burgundy in her son’s name, consolidating royal authority while balancing noble factions.
• Her policies strengthen the Church, continuing Merovingian royal patronage of monasteries.
• She maintains Neustrian dominance over Austrasia, ensuring that Chlothar III remains the primary Frankish ruler.

2. Challenges and Aristocratic Influence

• While Balthild rules, real power continues to shift toward the Mayors of the Palace, particularly Ebroin, who emerges as a dominant figure in Neustrian politics.
• The Frankish aristocracy seeks greater autonomy, increasingly dictating royal decisions as the Merovingian kings become more ceremonial.
• The division between Austrasia and Neustria-Burgundy remains, though Balthild ensures her son’s position remains strong.

3. The Legacy of Balthild’s Regency

• Balthild’s rule is marked by stability, Church patronage, and administrative reform, but also by the continued decline of Merovingian royal authority.
• After Chlothar III reaches maturity, Balthild is forced into monastic retirement, ending her direct influence on governance.
• Her regency ensures that the Merovingian dynasty remains in power, even as real control shifts to the nobility and the Mayors of the Palace.

Conclusion: The Merovingian Throne in Decline

The death of Clovis II in 657 CE and the regency of Queen Balthild highlight the growing power of the nobility over the Merovingian monarchy. While Chlothar III is nominally King of Neustria and Burgundy, the true rulers of Francia are increasingly the Mayors of the Palace, signaling the dynasty’s continued decline and foreshadowing the rise of the Carolingians.

Ali, after defeating the revolt of 656, immediately faces a new revolt fomented by the champions of the Umayyad cause, led by Uthman's cousin Muawiyah, governor of Syria, who believes Ali was involved in the murder of Uthman.

Ali responds by invading Syria.

The two armies meet in May 657 along the Euphrates River at Siffin (near present Ar-Raqqah, Syria) where they engage in an indecisive succession of skirmishes, truces, and battles, culminating in July with the legendary appearance of Mawiyah's troops with copies of the Qur'an impaled on their lances—supposedly a sign to let God's word decide the conflict.

In fact, this second rebellion is on the point of being crushed when Muawiyah averts defeat by proposing arbitration.

'Ali sees through the stratagem but is forced by his army to accept adjudication by umpires, which greatly weakens his position.

'Ali delegates Abu-Musa al-Ashaari as his representative, while Muawiyah sends 'Amr ibn al-'As.

The two men, basing their conversations on the Qur'an and the traditions (Hadith) of the Prophet and in the presence of witnesses, are to decide whether Uthman had been guilty of abusing the divine law.

If he had sinned and his murder was justified, then Ali's position as caliph will be secure; a verdict of innocence, however, will justify Muawiyah's attempts at vengeance and dislodge Ali.

Emperor Constans in 658 successfully attacks the Slavs of Sclavinia, as the Balkans region is now called, resettling captives in Asia Minor.

Slavic settlement in the Eastern Alps region is proven by the collapse of local dioceses in the late sixth century, a change in population and material culture, and most importantly, in the establishment of a Slavic language group in the area.

The territory settled by Slavs, however, was also inhabited by the remains of the indigenous Romanized population, which preserved Christianity.

Slavs in both the Eastern Alps and the Pannonian region were originally subject to Avar rulers (kagans).

After Avar rule weakened around 610, a relatively independent March of the Slavs (marca Vinedorum), governed by a duke, emerged in southern Carinthia in the early seventh century.

Historical sources mention Valuk as the duke of Slavs (Wallux dux Winedorum).

Slavs of the Eastern Alps probably joined Samo's Tribal Union, a Slavic tribal alliance governed by the Frankish merchant Samo in 623.

The year 626 brought an end to Avar dominance over Slavs, as Avars were defeated at Constantinople.

In 658, Samo dies and his Tribal Union disintegrates.

A smaller part of the original March of the Slavs, centered north of modern Klagenfurt, preserves independence and comes to be known as Carantania.