King Edward III bestows upon his sons the first ducal coronets (smaller gold crowns that, in England, come to be worn by the five orders of nobility under the king: dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons) in 1362.

King Richard, following the death of his mother, Joan of Kent, in 1385, and resentful of his regents, had begun to take control of England, appointing his friends to high office.

He has offended much of the English populace with his high-handed style of government, disinterest in the French war, and reliance on these few young friends, especially Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, who Richard names chancellor, and Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who Richard makes Duke of Ireland.

Following the departure of Richard’s uncle, John of Gaunt, for Spain, the “Merciless” Parliament of 1386, packed by several barons under the leadership of the the king’s uncle, Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, meets under the threat of rebellion by the king's five leading opponents, known as the Lords Appellant—Gloucester; Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke; the earl of Arundel; the earl of Warwick; and the earl of Nottingham—who bring charges of treason against Oxford.

Suffolk is impeached and a council is imposed on the king, despite Richard's charges of treason.

Oxford assembles four thousand men in 1387 and confronts Gloucester and the earl of Derby at Radcot Bridge.

Oxford's line breaks and he escapes but several other royal officers are captured and executed or forced into exile by the Lords Apellant, who until 1389 will virtually rule England.

France and England in Crisis: The Truce of Leulinghen (1389) and the End of the Second Phase of the Hundred Years’ War

By the late 1380s, both France and England were facing internal crises, leading to renewed attempts at peace negotiations. In 1389, these efforts culminated in the Truce of Leulinghen (signed June 18, 1389), which ended the second phase of the Hundred Years’ War.

France’s Internal Struggles (1380s)

• King Charles VI suffered from recurring bouts of mental illness, leaving the government in disarray.
• A series of tax-related revolts shook France, beginning with the Harelle Revolt (1382).
• These domestic troubles weakened France’s ability to sustain prolonged military campaigns, making a truce with England more appealing.

England’s Political and Financial Crisis

• The war had become increasingly unpopular in England, as high taxes were needed to fund it.
• These taxes were one of the factors behind the Peasants' Revolt (1381), fueling resentment among the lower classes.
• King Richard II’s lack of enthusiasm for the war, combined with his favoritism toward a select few advisors, angered a faction of powerful nobles.
• This faction, known as the Lords Appellant, included Richard’s uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, and led the Merciless Parliament of 1388, where they executed or exiled many of Richard’s closest advisors for treason.

The Truce of Leulinghen (June 18, 1389)

• By autumn 1388, despite their desire to renew hostilities, the Lords Appellant could not secure funding for military campaigns.
• The English Council reluctantly resumed peace negotiations with France, leading to the Truce of Leulinghen, signed on June 18, 1389, near Calais.
• This three-year truce effectively ended the second phase of the Hundred Years' War, as neither side was in a position to continue fighting.

Impact and Legacy

• The Truce of Leulinghen provided a temporary halt to hostilities, allowing both kingdoms to focus on internal stability.
• The discontent in England would continue to grow, leading to Richard II’s eventual downfall in 1399.
• France’s truce with England allowed Charles VI’s uncles to consolidate power, though the king’s ongoing mental illness would continue to destabilize the monarchy.

The Truce of Leulinghen (1389) marked a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War, as both France and England faced mounting internal crises that prevented further conflict, leading to a temporary peace.

John of Gaunt’s Rule Over Aquitaine and the Gascon Discontent (1389–1395)

After leaving Portugal for Aquitaine, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, remained in the province until returning to England in November 1389. This effectively removed him from the political turmoil in England, where King Richard II clashed with the Lords Appellant, led by John’s younger brother, Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester.

John of Gaunt's Investiture as Duke of Aquitaine (March 1390)

• Upon his return to England, John of Gaunt was formally invested with the Duchy of Aquitaine in March 1390 by King Richard II.
• This appointment fulfilled John’s long-standing ambition for an overseas dominion but provoked resentmentamong the Gascon nobility.

Tensions in Aquitaine: Absentee Rule and Gascon Discontent

• Despite his new title, John of Gaunt did not immediately return to Aquitaine, instead governing through seneschals as an absentee Duke.
• His administration disappointed the local nobility, who had expected strong leadership from the English Crown itself.
• The Gascons resented the notion that Aquitaine was a fief that could be granted to a subject—traditionally, it had always been held directly by the King of England or his heir.

Crisis and John of Gaunt’s Return to Gascony (1394–1395)

• By 1394, dissatisfaction had reached a critical point, with threats of secession from the Gascon nobles.
• In response, John of Gaunt was forced to spend nearly a year (1394–95) in Gascony, attempting to restore authority and secure loyalty.
• His efforts to stabilize the duchy were largely unsuccessful, as resentment toward his rule persisted, contributing to the ongoing decline of English influence in France.

Impact and Consequences

• John of Gaunt’s ineffective administration of Aquitaine weakened English authority in Gascony, further eroding Plantagenet control in France.
• The Gascon nobles’ dissatisfaction foreshadowed future tensions, as English rule in Aquitaine continued to decline throughout the 15th century.
• Gaunt’s absence from England in 1394–95 also meant he played little role in Richard II’s growing political instability, which would ultimately lead to Richard’s deposition in 1399.

John of Gaunt’s tenure as Duke of Aquitaine (1390–1399) was marked by absentee rule, local resentment, and administrative failure, hastening the deterioration of English power in southwestern France.

The Lords Appellant, a group of powerful barons who had come together during the 1380s to seize political control of England from King Richard II, are called so because its members claim simply to be appealing to the King for good government (their major complaint had been Richard's decision to make peace with France).

The Lords are led by Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester (youngest son of King Edward III and thus King Richard's uncle), Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel, and Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick; the group also involves the Earl of Nottingham, as well as Richard's cousin, the Earl of Derby and Northampton, Henry Bolingbroke.

The Lords Appellant in 1387 had launched an armed rebellion against King Richard and defeated his forces at Radcot Bridge, outside Oxford.

They had maintained Richard as a figurehead with little real power, and impeached, imprisoned, exiled, or executed most of his court.

For example, Richard's Chancellor, the Earl of Suffolk, had been impeached in 1386, and the Duke of Ireland had been stripped of his titles and exiled.

Richard's uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, had returned from Spain in 1389 and Richard has since been able to rebuild his power gradually.

With national stability secured, Richard had begun negotiating a permanent peace with France.

A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of Aquitaine possessed by the English crown.

However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that the English king pay homage to the King of France—a condition that proved unacceptable to the English public.

Instead, in 1396, a truce is agreed to, which is to last twenty eight years.

The truce is hugely unpopular at home in spite of the dividends that peace bring to the kingdom.

As part of the truce, the childless Richard agrees to marry Isabella, daughter of Charles VI of France by Isabella of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, when she comes of age.

There are some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular because the princess is only six years old, and thus will not be able to produce an heir to the throne of England for many years.

Isabella is moved to Wallingford Castle for protection while Richard campaigns in Ireland.

Although the union is political, the twenty-nine-year-old Richard and his child consort will develop a mutually respectful relationship.

Thomas de Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk: Political Ascendancy and the Death of Gloucester (1382–1397)

Thomas de Mowbray (1366–1399), a great-great-grandson of King Edward I, rose to prominence during the reign of Richard II, holding key military and political positions. His loyalty to the king and involvement in court intrigues led to his elevation as Duke of Norfolk in 1397, but also to controversy surrounding the death of the Duke of Gloucester.

I. Early Career and Titles

• In 1382, Mowbray succeeded his brother John, inheriting the titles of 6th Baron Mowbray and 7th Baron Segrave.
• Shortly thereafter, he was created Earl of Nottingham, a title that had also been granted to his late brother.
• In 1385, he was appointed Earl Marshal of England, making him one of the most powerful military figuresin the realm.

II. Military Service in Scotland and France

• As Earl Marshal, Mowbray led campaigns:
  • Against the Scots, defending England’s northern borders.
  • Against the French, participating in naval operations and countering French raids on the English coast.

III. The Imprisonment and Death of the Duke of Gloucester (1397)

• By 1397, King Richard II sought to eliminate his political enemies, particularly the Lords Appellant, who had humiliated him in the Merciless Parliament of 1388.
• Among the most prominent Lords Appellant was Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, Richard’s uncle and chief opponent.
• Gloucester was arrested and sent to Calais, where Mowbray, as Captain of Calais, was responsible for his custody.
• Shortly after, Gloucester died under mysterious circumstances, likely on the orders of Richard II.
• Mowbray was almost certainly involved, either as an accomplice or as the official overseeing his death.

IV. Reward and Elevation to Duke of Norfolk (1397)

• Just weeks after Gloucester’s death, Richard II rewarded Mowbray by elevating him to Duke of Norfolk.
• This strengthened his rank and political power, securing his position as a key ally of the king.

V. Impact and Later Conflict

• Despite his loyalty to Richard II, Mowbray later became embroiled in the dispute with Henry Bolingbroke (the future Henry IV), which led to his exile in 1398 and eventual downfall.
• His involvement in Gloucester’s death would remain controversial, as it became one of the justifications for Richard II’s later deposition in 1399.

Thomas de Mowbray’s rise to power was closely tied to Richard II’s purges, and while his rewards were great, his role in Gloucester’s death cast a shadow over his legacy, making him a key figure in the political turbulence leading to the fall of Richard II.

The period that historians refer to as the "tyranny" of Richard II began towards the end of the 1390s.

Finally able to exert autocratic authority over the kingdom, he purges all those he sees as not totally committed to him, fulfilling his own idea of becoming God’s chosen prince.

The king now destroys the Lords Appellant, in July 1397 having them arrested.

Arundel is the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397.

After a heated quarrel with the king, he is condemned and executed.

Gloucester is being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial.

As the time for the trial draws near, Nottingham brings news that Gloucester is dead.

It is thought likely that the king had ordered him to be killed to avoid the disgrace of executing a prince of the blood.

Warwick is also condemned to death, but his life is spared and he is sentenced to life imprisonment instead. (Imprisoned in one of the Tower of London’s thirteen towers, he will give his name to the Beauchamp Tower.)

Arundel's brother Thomas Arundel, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is exiled for life.

Richard now takes his persecution of adversaries to the localities.

While recruiting retainers for himself in various counties, he prosecutes local men who had been loyal to the appellants.

The fines levied on these men bring great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raise questions about the legality of the proceedings.

These actions have been made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but also with the support of a number of men lifted to prominence by the king, disparagingly referred to as Richard's "duketti".

John and Thomas Holland, the king's half-brother and nephew, are promoted from earls of Huntingdon and Kent to dukes of Exeter and Surrey, respectively. (Thomas had been sent by Richard to arrest his own uncle, Arundel.)

Among the other loyalists are John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset, Edward, Earl of Rutland, John Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, and Thomas le Despenser.

With the forfeited land of the convicted appellants, the king can now reward these men with lands and incomes suited to their new ranks.

A threat to Richard's authority still exists, however, in the form of the House of Lancaster, represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry, Earl of Derby (also known as Henry of Bolingbroke).

The house of Lancaster not only possesses greater wealth than any other family in England, they are also of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed the childless Richard.

Discord breaks out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Bolingbroke and Thomas de Mowbray—who have now been made Duke of Hereford and Duke of Norfolk, respectively,—become engaged in a quarrel.

According to Bolingbroke, Mowbray had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, are next in line for royal retribution.

Mowbray vehemently denies these charges, as such a claim would amount to treason.