The Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history is part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty emperors.

In a strict academic sense, it refers to the period between the foundation of the Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin Dynasty in 280.

Many scholars extend the starting point of this period back to the uprising of the Yellow Turbans in 184.

The three kingdoms are Wei, Shu, and Wu.

Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign, also known as the War of Pacification in Nanzhong, is a military campaign led by Shu Han chancellor Zhuge Liang to suppress opposing forces in the South in 225.

The campaign is a response to rebellions started by local governors in the southern region of Nanzhong and intrusions by the Nanman (literally: "southern barbarians").

Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions are a series of five military campaigns launched by the state of Shu Han against the rival state of Cao Wei from 228.

China’s Later Han Dynasty collapses by 221, due largely to economic woes and intense political factionalism at court.

Massive peasant rebellion and the resulting dissolution of the empire lead to the so-called Period of Disunion.

A series of semi-Sinicized barbarian peoples rule North China; Chinese colonial regimes settle the south.

Three separate kingdoms replace the empire (in what later historians will call the “Three Kingdoms” period.)

Confucianism is discredited and aristocrats, rather than the Confucian-tested morally superior men, dominate the governments.

Fierce racial tension and great physical destruction ensues.

The nomadic Turkic-speaking bandits known as the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), based in Mongolia, begin to threaten China’s borders.

East Central Europe (220–231 CE): Emerging Frontier Pressures and Shifting Tribal Dynamics

Between 220 and 231 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced growing pressures along the Roman frontier. The previously stable frontier under the Severan dynasty (193–235 CE) began encountering signs of strain due to increasing internal Roman instability, shifting tribal alliances, and intensified diplomatic complexity among Germanic and Sarmatian neighbors, including the Marcomanni, Quadi, Iazyges, and other emerging groups.

Political and Military Developments

Emerging Frontier Challenges

• After the stable reigns of Severan emperors, Roman provinces along the Danube—Pannonia Superior, Pannonia Inferior, and Noricum—began experiencing heightened pressures from neighboring tribal communities.

• Internal political uncertainty within the Roman Empire under emperors like Elagabalus (218–222 CE) and Severus Alexander (222–235 CE) weakened Roman frontier administration, increasing vulnerabilities.

Increased Diplomatic Complexity

• Diplomatic interactions became increasingly complex, with tribes such as the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Iazyges adopting more assertive postures, seeking advantageous terms as Roman strength appeared uncertain.

• New tribal alliances and power shifts among Germanic and Sarmatian groups gradually reshaped frontier relationships, creating a more fluid diplomatic landscape.

Economic and Technological Developments

Moderate Economic Strain

• While cross-border trade continued, the region’s economic prosperity faced moderate disruptions resulting from growing frontier uncertainties and occasional tribal tensions. Roman goods (metalwork, pottery, textiles, glass) remained central in trade exchanges but required increased military escort or protection, reflecting new regional challenges.

Continued Frontier Infrastructure

• Despite challenges, the Romans maintained and continued strengthening their defensive frontier infrastructure—fortifications, roads, and communications—though at a reduced pace compared to previous eras.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Adapting Cultural Expressions

• Cultural and artistic activities reflected changing regional dynamics, with increased emphasis on defensive, military, and protective motifs in artifacts. Artisans adapted to uncertainties, producing durable, practical, and defensively oriented objects.

Persistent Cultural Integration

• Roman and tribal communities continued cultural interactions despite emerging challenges, maintaining productive exchanges and synthesis in craftsmanship and material culture.

Settlement and Urban Development

Frontier Fortification Adjustments

• Roman frontier towns (Carnuntum, Vindobona, Aquincum) experienced modest expansion and further fortification adjustments, responding to increased frontier threats and uncertainty.

Adaptive Tribal Settlements

• Germanic and Sarmatian communities adjusted settlement patterns, fortifying and strategically positioning villages to better respond to potential instability and future conflicts.

Social and Religious Developments

Strengthened Tribal Leadership

• Tribal leadership became increasingly assertive and militarily focused in response to emerging Roman weaknesses and frontier uncertainties. Warrior elites gained prominence through preparations for potential future conflict.

Religious Practices Reflecting Uncertainty

• Tribal religious practices emphasized protective rites and communal solidarity rituals, responding culturally to the growing instability and uncertainty along the frontier.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 220 to 231 CE signaled an important shift in East Central Europe, marking the gradual erosion of Severan-era stability and the beginnings of a new phase of frontier challenges. Increased internal Roman instability and shifting tribal dynamics began reshaping the region’s political, economic, and social conditions, setting the stage for intensified frontier pressures and tribal migrations that would profoundly influence subsequent eras.

The Middle East: 220–231 CE

Collapse of Parthian Power and the Rise of the Sassanids

Between 220 and 231 CE, the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East undergoes a radical transformation with the collapse of the Parthian Empire, which had dominated the region for nearly five centuries. The decline culminates dramatically in 224 CE, when the Parthian king Artabanus IV is decisively defeated by Ardashir I, ruler of the Persian province of Persis (Fars).

This pivotal confrontation, the Battle of Hormozdgan, results in Artabanus IV’s death and signifies the definitive end of Parthian rule. Ardashir proclaims himself "King of Kings" and swiftly establishes the Sassanid dynasty, named after his ancestor, Sasan, thereby restoring a distinctly Persian imperial identity not seen since the fall of the Achaemenid Empire centuries earlier.

Ardashir I embarks on an ambitious program of centralization, consolidating power across the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia, while vigorously promoting Zoroastrianism as the state religion, positioning it in opposition to Roman Christianity in the West. The Sassanids aggressively revive Persian culture, traditions, and language, deliberately distancing themselves from Hellenistic influences that characterized Parthian society.

By the end of this era, the Sassanid Empire firmly controls former Parthian territories, reshaping regional dynamics and setting the stage for centuries of intense rivalry and intermittent warfare with the Roman Empire, dramatically altering the trajectory of Middle Eastern history.

The territory of the Sātavāhana Empire or Andhra Empire, a royal Indian dynasty based from Dharanikota and …

…Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as …

…Junnar (Pune) and …

…Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra, has covered much of the Deccan plateau and central India for four hundred and fifty years, i.e., from 230 BCE until around 220 CE.

As a result of the victories of Rudradaman I, the Western Satraps had regained all the former territories previously held in the first century CE by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Pune and Nasik, limiting Satavahana dominions to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati.

However, the last great king of this dynasty, Yajna Satakarni, defeated the Western Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and central India.

During his reign (170–199 CE), the Sātavāhanas had regained some prosperity, and some of his coins have been found in Saurashtra.

Four or five kings of Yajna Satakarni's line had succeeded him, and continue to rule until about 220, when the dynasty is extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps because of a decline in central power.

Several dynasties eventually divide the lands of the kingdom among themselves.

Near East (220–231 CE): Revival and Reconfiguration of Jewish Life

During this era, the Roman Near East continues its complex relationship with Jewish communities, reflecting both periods of persecution and renewed tolerance. Earlier, during the Jewish War (68 CE), Vespasian had inflicted devastation upon the settlement of Betaris in Idumea. According to Josephus, Vespasian's forces killed over ten thousand residents, enslaved more than a thousand, and scattered the remaining population, leaving the mountainous region ravaged. Further destruction occurred during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE).

Yet by the early third century, the Romans had rebuilt and renamed the city Eleutheropolis, meaning "City of the Free," marking a symbolic shift from its tragic past. Coins minted during the reign of Septimius Severus bear the date January 1, 200, commemorating the founding of Eleutheropolis. Strategically located where seven roads intersect, Eleutheropolis rapidly becomes one of the most significant urban centers in Roman Palestine. Its centrality is highlighted by Eusebius, who later, in his Onomasticon, will use the city's milestones as a reference point to measure distances to other towns.

Meanwhile, Jewish intellectual life experiences significant shifts. Although many Jews had remained in Babylonfollowing the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE), the beginning of the third century sees an upsurge in Jewish scholarship and religious activity there. This shift is exacerbated by the gradual weakening of Judaea under continuous Roman military demands and heavy taxation from the client rulers based in Palmyra in south-central Syria. Such financial oppression leaves Judaea impoverished, greatly diminishing local support for its traditional schools of learning. Consequently, scholars increasingly relocate their academies to more prosperous and stable environments.

The period of rule under Roman Emperor Alexander Severus (222–235 CE) marks a notable improvement in conditions for the Jews. Severus' comparatively tolerant policies include the reinstatement of several Jewish rights previously curtailed, most notably granting permission for Jews to resume visits to Jerusalem.

Legacy of the Era

From 220 to 231 CE, the Near East witnesses a meaningful reconfiguration of Jewish communal life, marked by both the revival of historically significant urban centers like Eleutheropolis and the critical shift of Jewish scholarly prominence towards Babylon. This era sets a lasting precedent for the diasporic vitality and adaptability of Jewish culture amid continuing Roman dominion.

Vespasian had slaughtered or enslaved the inhabitants of Betaris in the Jewish War in 68.

According to Josephus: "When he had seized upon two villages, which were in the very midst of Idumea, Betaris, and Caphartobas, he slew above ten thousand of the people, and carried into captivity above a thousand, and drove away the rest of the multitude, and placed no small part of his own forces in them, who overran and laid waste the whole mountainous country." (Josephus, The Jewish Wars, IV.viii.1)

The settlement had been demolished once again in 132–135 during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

The Romans have reestablished the city and given it a Greek name, Eleutheropolis, meaning “City of the Free."

Coins minted by Septimius Severus bear the date January 1, 200, commemorating its founding.

Eleutherpolis, where seven routes meet, has become one of the most important cities in Roman Palestine.

Eusebius in his Onomasticon will use the Roman milestones indicating the city as a central point from which the distances of other towns are measured.