Archaeological evidence suggests that much of the interior of Australia was abandoned by Aborigines during a period of harsh climatic conditions between twenty-five thousand and fifteen thousand years ago and reoccupied after conditions improved.

Tasmania becomes an island when sea levels rise sometime between thirteen thousand five hundred and eight thousand years ago and isolate the Aboriginal Tasmanians who live there from the mainland.

A farmer at Mezhirich, a village (selo) in central Ukraine, will dig up the lower jawbone of a mammoth in 1965 while in the process of expanding his cellar.

Further excavations will reveal the presence of four huts, made up of a total of one hundred and forty-nine mammoth bones.

These dwellings, dating back some fifteen thousand years, will be determined to have been some of the oldest shelters known to have been constructed by prehistoric man, usually attributed to Early European Modern Humans.

Also found on the site were a map inscribed onto a bone, presumably showing the area around the settlement; the remains of a "drum", made of a mammoth skull painted with a pattern of red ocher dots and lines; and amber ornaments and fossil shells.

The oldest known evidence of warfare will be found at Cemetery 117, an ancient burial site near Wadi Halfa, near the northern border of Sudan.

The remains of fifty-nine bodies, as well as numerous other fragmented remains will be discovered here in 1964 by a team led by Fred Wendorf.

Determined to be around 14,340 to 13,140 years old, the remains represent twenty-four females and nineteen males over nineteen years of age, as well as thirteen children ranging in age from infancy to fifteen years old.

Three additional bodies will also be discovered, but their age and sex cannot be determined due to damage and missing pieces.

The site comprises three cemeteries, two of which are called Jebel Sahaba, one on either side of the Nile river and the third cemetery being called Tushka.

About forty percent of the people buried in Jebel Sahaba had died of violent wounds.

Pointed stone projectiles are found in their bodies at places that suggest the bodies had been attacked by spears or arrows.

The wounds are located around the sternum, abdomen, back, and skull (through the lower jaw or neck).

The Solutrean Tool Industry (c. 18,000–15,000 BCE)

The Solutrean tool industry, named after the site of Solutré, near Mâcon, France, was a brief but technologically spectacular phase of the Upper Paleolithic. Geographically restricted to central and western France and northeastern Spain, it emerged around 18,000 BCE in southwestern France before disappearing by 15,000 BCE.

Characteristics of Solutrean Tool Collections

• Side scrapers – The most abundant tool type, used for processing hides, wood, and bone.
• Borers and gravers – Frequently used for engraving and working organic materials such as bone and antler.
• Burins – Less common but still present, used for carving and shaping.

The Solutrean Laurel Leaf: A Masterpiece of Stoneworking

• The Solutrean laurel leaf, a lanceolate point of varying length, is the hallmark of Solutrean craftsmanship.
• The earliest examples were unifacially worked, meaning flaked on only one side.
• Later versions show bifacial retouching, making them thinner, more symmetrical, and highly refined.
• These points were likely used as projectile tips or ceremonial objects, showcasing the exquisite flint-knapping skills of Solutrean artisans.

Significance of the Solutrean Industry

• Solutrean artisans developed advanced pressure flaking techniques, allowing for thin, delicate, and finely retouched tools—a skill level unmatched in earlier tool industries.
• The geographic and chronological isolation of the Solutrean industry suggests it may have been an adaptive response to cold-climate conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum.
• The disappearance of the Solutrean tradition around 15,000 BCE coincided with the transition to the Magdalenian culture, which emphasized bone and antler tools over highly flaked stone points.

Despite its brief duration, the Solutrean tool industry represents a peak of Paleolithic stone craftsmanship, demonstrating a level of precision and artistry that remains one of the greatest achievements of Ice Age technology.

The Solutrean sequence gives way to Western Europe’s so-called Magdalenian tool industry, named for the site in southwestern France where associated artifacts date from approximately 15,000 BCE to 7,500 BCE.

The Magdalenian sequence, the final industry of the Pleistocene Epoch, shows an increasing standardization of tool types in both stone and bone.

The Lower Magdalenian segment coincides with the latter half of the Wurm III glacial stadial, ending around 13,000 BCE.

Multibarbed harpoons, fashioned of antler, are the basic implements of the Upper Magdalenian sequence.

Between 16,500 and 14,000 years ago, artists—possibly hunters—skillfully depicted bison, deer, and other animals in red and black paint on the ceiling of Altamira Cave in northeastern Spain. These early painters incorporated the cave’s natural contours into their engravings and artwork, creating a remarkable three-dimensional effect.

The act of painting deep within Altamira and other caves suggests the invention of a portable lamp fueled by fat or oil, allowing artists to illuminate the recesses as they worked.

Archaeological Findings and Human Occupation

Excavations of the cave floor have uncovered rich Upper Solutrean (18,500 years ago) and Lower Magdalenian (16,500–14,000 years ago) artifact deposits, both part of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age).

Between these two periods, the cave was uninhabited by humans, serving only as a shelter for wild animals. When occupied, its location provided access to abundant wildlife in the surrounding valleys, while its proximity to the coast allowed for a supplementary marine diet.

Around 13,000 years ago, a rockfall sealed the cave entrance, preserving its contents for millennia. The cave was eventually rediscovered when a falling tree disturbed the collapsed rocks, revealing its hidden artwork.

The Mastery of Altamira’s Artists

Human occupation was limited to the cave entrance, but paintings extend throughout its entire length. The artists used charcoal, ochre, and hematite, often scratching or diluting the pigments to create variations in intensity, producing a chiaroscuro effect.

The Polychrome Ceiling is the cave’s most impressive feature, depicting a herd of bison in different poses, along with two horses, a large doe, and possibly a wild boar. This art, dating to the Magdalenian period, includes both animal subjects and abstract shapes.

Solutrean-era artwork in the cave features horses, goats, and handprints—created by placing a hand against the wall and blowing pigment over it, leaving a negative impression of the palm.

Although numerous caves in northern Spain contain Paleolithic art, none rival Altamira in artistic sophistication or density of imagery.

Lascaux: A Masterpiece of Upper Paleolithic Cave Art

The Lascaux cave, located near Montignac in the Dordogne region of France, is one of the most spectacular prehistoric art sites in the world. The ceilings and walls of its central cavern and multiple side chambers are adorned with sophisticated drawings, paintings, and engravings, executed in black, brown, red, and yellow pigments.

While many images have faded over time and some have deteriorated entirely, the cave still contains nearly 2,000 figures, grouped into three primary categories:

1. Animals – The dominant subject matter, representing the Ice Age fauna of the time.
2. Human figures – Rare but present, depicted in highly stylized forms.
3. Abstract signs – Geometric and symbolic markings whose meanings remain uncertain.

Age and Subject Matter

• The paintings at Lascaux are estimated to be 17,300 years old, placing them within the Magdalenian period of the Upper Paleolithic.
• The images primarily depict large Ice Age animals, many of which are confirmed through fossil evidence to have lived in the region.
• Cattle and bison each represent approximately 4–5% of the total images.
• Other depictions include:
  • Seven felines, suggesting knowledge of Ice Age predators.
  • A bird, a bear, and a rhinoceros, uncommon subjects in Paleolithic art.
  • A rare human figure, an unusual feature in cave art.

The Iconic Hall of the Bulls

One of the most famous sections of Lascaux is the Hall of the Bulls, which features:

• Four massive black bulls (aurochs), some measuring up to 5.2 meters (17 feet) in length.
• Dynamic, overlapping figures, creating a sense of movement and interaction.
• The use of multiple pigments and shading techniques, demonstrating an advanced understanding of artistic representation.

Significance of Lascaux

• The scale, detail, and complexity of Lascaux’s paintings suggest that Magdalenian artists possessed an advanced artistic tradition.
• The use of natural rock contours to enhance the three-dimensional appearance of animals highlights a remarkable artistic intuition.
• The presence of abstract symbols hints at early forms of symbolic or written communication.

Though closed to the public to prevent further deterioration, Lascaux remains one of the most important archaeological discoveries of the 20th century, offering profound insight into the cognitive, cultural, and artistic capabilities of early humans.

 Hall of the Bulls.

There are no images of reindeer, even though that was the principal source of food for the artists.

The most famous section of the cave is The Great Hall of the Bulls, where bulls, equines, and stags are depicted.

The four black bulls are the dominant figures among the thirty-six animals represented here.

One of the bulls is seventeen feet (5.2 meters) long—the largest animal discovered so far in cave art.

Additionally, the bulls appear to be in motion.

A painting referred to as "The Crossed Bison" and found in the chamber called the Nave is often held as an example of the skill of the Paleolithic cave painters.

The crossed hind legs show the ability to use perspective in a manner that will not be seen again until the fifteenth century.