Burebista, in battles mentioned by Strabo, defeats the Celts who menace his western borders after 48 BCE, forcing them back westward into Pannonia, a region originally peopled by the Pannonii (sometimes called Paeonii by the Greeks) and invaded from the fourth century BCE by various Celtic tribes.

Caesar, victorious in the civil war, returns to Rome in 46 BCE to an unprecedented quadruple triumph, in which he has Vercingetorix, imprisoned for nearly six years, executed in Rome.

Appointed Dictator for ten years, he is also appointed prefect of morals.

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, son of Catulus’s old foe, is co-consul.

Among Julius Caesar's greatest supporters, Lepidus had started his cursus honorum as a praetor in 49 BCE, and had been placed in charge of Rome while Caesar defeated Pompey in Greece.

Caesar leaves in November for Farther Spain to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance by …

…the sons of the late Pompey, Gnaeus and Sextus, who have seized Corduba (Córdoba).

The Optimates gather their forces to oppose Caesar with astonishing speed.

Their army includes forty thousand men (about ten legions), a powerful cavalry force led by Caesar's former right hand man, the talented Titus Labienus, forces of allied local kings and sixty war elephants.

The two armies engage in small skirmishes to gauge the strength of the opposing force, during which two legions switch to Caesar's side.

Meanwhile, Caesar expects reinforcements from Sicily.

Thapsus, originally founded by Phoenicians near a salt lake on a point of land eighty stadia (14.8 km) from the island of Lampedusa, serves as a marketplace on the coast of the province Byzacena in Africa Propria.

In the beginning of February, Caesar arrives in Thapsus and besieges the city, blocking the southern entrance with three lines of fortifications.

The Optimates, led by Metellus Scipio, cannot risk the loss of this position and are forced to accept battle.

Caesar's archers attacks the elephants, causing them to panic and trample their own men.

The elephants on the left flank charge against Caesar's center, where Legio V Alaudae is placed.

This legion sustains the charge with such bravery that afterwards they will wear an elephant as a symbol.

After the loss of the elephants, Metellus Scipio starts to lose ground.

Caesar's cavalry outmaneuvers its enemy, destroys the fortified camp, and forces its enemy into retreat.

King Juba's allied troops abandon the site and the battle is decided.

Roughly ten thousand enemy soldiers want to surrender to Caesar, but are instead slaughtered by his army.

This action is unusual for Caesar, who is known as a merciful victor.

Some sources contend Caesar had an epileptic seizure during the battle and was not fully conscious for its aftermath.

Scipio himself escapes, only to commit suicide months later in a naval battle near Hippo.

Following the battle, Caesar renews the siege of Thapsus, which eventually falls.

Caesar exacts a payment of fifty thousand sesterces from the vanquished.

Their defeat marks the end of opposition to Caesar in Africa.

Thapsus now becomes a Roman colony.

Caesar proceeds to Utica, where Cato the Younger is garrisoned.

On the news of the defeat of his allies, Cato commits suicide.

Caesar is upset by this and is reported by Plutarch to have said: Cato, I must grudge you your death, as you grudged me the honor of saving your life.

The battle precedes peace in Africa—Caesar pulls out and returns to Rome on July 25 of the same year.

Opposition, however, will rise again.

Titus Labienus, the Pompeian brothers and others have managed to escape to the Hispania provinces.

The civil war is not finished, and the Battle of Munda will soon follow.

Caesar besieges Pompey's supporters at Thapsus, a North African seaport about five miles (eight kilometers) east of present-day Teboulba, Tunisia, on February 6, 46 BCE.

Pompey's father-in-law, intending to relieve Caesar's siege, draws up his fourteen legions and fifteen thousand cavalry on the corridor of land that forms the northern approach to the city.

Caesar's officers cannot restrain their own forces, who surge forward and overwhelm the enemy and, completely out of control, slaughter about ten thousand of them.

Within three weeks of his victory, Caesar has conquered Roman Africa.

King Juba, who had been a supporter of Pompey the Great against Julius Caesar, has attempted to establish a strong, independent Numidian state.

After Caesar defeats Juba in 46, he forms a new province, Africa Nova, from Numidian territory.

Sallust, who has found refuge in Caesar's army, has participated in Caesar's African campaign and becomes governor of Numidia, which becomes briefly the province of Africa Nova until Augustus restores Juba II (son of Juba I) after the Battle of Actium.

Many parts of the Indonesian archipelago play a role in local and wider trading networks from early times, and some are further connected to interregional routes reaching much farther corners of the globe.

Nearly four thousand years ago, cloves—which until the seventeenth century grow nowhere else in the world except five small islands in Maluku—had made their way to kitchens in present-day Syria.

By about the same time, items such as shells, pottery, marble, and other stones; ingots of tin, copper, and gold; and quantities of many food goods are traded over a wide area in Southeast Asia.

As early as the fourth century BCE, materials from South Asia, the Mediterranean world, and China—ceramics, glass and stone beads, and coins—begin to show up in the archipelago.

In the already well-developed regional trade, bronze vessels and other objects, such as the spectacular kettledrums produced first in Dong Son (northern Vietnam), circulated in the island world, appearing after the second century BCE from Sumatra to Bali and from Kalimantan and Sulawesi to the eastern part of Maluku.

Around two thousand years ago, Javanese and Balinese are themselves producing elegant bronze ware, which is traded widely and has been found in Sumatra, Madura, and Maluku.

In all of this trade, including that with the furthest destinations, peoples of the archipelago appear to have dominated, not only as producers and consumers or sellers and buyers, but as shipbuilders and owners, navigators, and crew.

The principal dynamic originated in the archipelago.

This is an important point, for historians have often mistakenly seen both the trade itself and the changes that stemmed from it in subsequent centuries as primarily the work of outsiders, leaving Indonesians with little historical agency, an error often repeated in assessing the origins and flow of change in more recent times as well.

Vietnam is governed leniently during the first century or so of Chinese rule, and the Lac lords maintain their feudal offices.

In the first century CE, however, China intensifies its efforts to assimilate its new territories by raising taxes and instituting marriage reforms aimed at turning Vietnam into a patriarchal society more amenable to political authority.

In response to increased Chinese domination, a revolt breaks out in Giao Chi, Cuu Chan, and Nhat Nam in CE 39, led by Trung Trac, the wife of a Lac lord who had been put to death by the Chinese, and her sister Trung Nhi.

The insurrection is put down within two years by the Han general Ma Yuan, and the Trung sisters drown themselves to avoid capture by the Chinese.

Still celebrated as heroines by the Vietnamese, the Trung sisters exemplify the relatively high status of women in Vietnamese society as well as the importance to Vietnamese of resistance to foreign rule.

Chinese rule over the Vietnamese becomes more direct following the ill-fated revolt, and the feudal Lac lords fade into history.

Ma Yuan establishes a Chinese-style administrative system of three prefectures and fifty-six districts ruled by scholar-officials sent by the Han court.

Although Chinese administrators replace most former local officials, some members of the Vietnamese aristocracy are allowed to fill lower positions in the bureaucracy.

The Vietnamese elite in particular receive a thorough indoctrination in Chinese cultural, religious, and political traditions.

One result of Sinicization, however, is the creation of a Confucian bureaucratic, family, and social structure that give the Vietnamese the strength to resist Chinese political domination in later centuries, unlike most of the other Yue peoples who are sooner or later assimilated into the Chinese cultural and political world.

Nor is Sinicization so total as to erase the memory of pre-Han Vietnamese culture, especially among the peasant class, which retains the Vietnamese language and many Southeast Asian customs.

Chinese rule has the dual effect of making the Vietnamese aristocracy more receptive to Chinese culture and cultural leadership while at the same time instilling resistance and hostility toward Chinese political domination throughout Vietnamese society.