The Permanent Division of the Roman Empire (395 CE): The Death of Theodosius I and the Birth of Two Empires

With the death of Emperor Theodosius I on January 17, 395 CE, the Roman Empire was permanently divided into two:

1. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, ruled from Constantinople.
2. The Western Roman Empire, ruled from Rome (and later Ravenna).

This division marked a defining moment in Roman history, setting the stage for the gradual decline of the Western Empire and the long-lasting endurance of the Eastern Byzantine Empire.

1. The Political and Administrative Background

• The division of the empire was not entirely new—Emperors Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE) and Constantine I (r. 306–337 CE) had previously split administrative responsibilities between East and West.
• Theodosius I (r. 379–395 CE) was the last emperor to rule both halves as a single entity.
• Upon his death, the empire was permanently divided between his two sons:
  • Arcadius (r. 395–408 CE) received the Eastern Empire.
  • Honorius (r. 395–423 CE) received the Western Empire.

2. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire: Stability and Survival

• Capital: Constantinople, the political and economic hub of the East.
• Stronger economy, thanks to rich provinces like Egypt, Anatolia, and the Levant.
• More urbanized and centralized, with a more efficient bureaucracy.
• The Eastern army remained relatively strong, able to repel threats like the Huns, Sassanids, and Slavs.
• Survived for nearly 1,000 more years, evolving into the Byzantine Empire, which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE.

3. The Western Roman Empire: Decline and Collapse

• Capital: Initially Rome, but later moved to Milan and Ravenna for better defense.
• Economically weaker, relying heavily on the Eastern Empire for financial and military aid.
• Increasing dependence on Germanic foederati (barbarian mercenaries) to defend its borders.
• Overrun by barbarian invasions, including the Visigoths (who sacked Rome in 410 CE), Vandals, and Huns.
• The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE, when Odoacer deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, marking the traditional end of the Roman Empire in the West.

4. The Long-Term Impact of the Division

• The Western Empire's fall led to the formation of medieval Europe, with various Germanic kingdoms taking its place.
• The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) preserved Roman traditions, law (Justinian’s Code), and Greek culture, acting as a bridge between the ancient and medieval worlds.
• The concept of a unified Roman Empire remained influential, inspiring later rulers like Charlemagne (800 CE)and the Holy Roman Emperors.

5. Conclusion: The End of One Empire, the Beginning of Another

The division of the Roman Empire in 395 CE was a turning point in world history. While the Western Empire crumbled, the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) thrived, carrying forward Roman governance, Christianity, and cultural achievements for nearly a millennium more. This moment shaped the course of medieval Europe and the broader Mediterranean world, influencing history for centuries to come.