North Africa (1912–1923 CE)

Consolidation of Colonial Dominance and Rise of Nationalist Resistance

The era from 1912 to 1923 in North Africa witnesses intensified European colonial control and significant local responses, marked by growing nationalist movements and heightened socio-political transformations across Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco.

Algeria: Entrenchment of French Rule and Emerging Resistance

In Algeria, French colonial policies deepen their grip, driven by the interests of the European settler population (colons). Indigenous Algerians experience further land seizures and economic disenfranchisement, exacerbating rural poverty and urban overcrowding. Algerian Muslims remain severely underrepresented in political institutions, their rights significantly curtailed by the French administration.

Despite continued resistance and increasing nationalist sentiment, organized opposition is fragmented. However, the groundwork for future nationalist movements is laid during this period, particularly among the growing educated elite who begin articulating political and social reforms.

Tunisia: Institutionalization of Colonial Control and Early Nationalist Activity

Tunisia solidifies as a French protectorate, its administrative and economic policies firmly subordinated to French interests. The role of the Tunisian Bey and local elites continues to be marginalized, fueling resentment among the indigenous population. Economic exploitation by French enterprises heightens socioeconomic disparities, spurring increased nationalist awareness and grassroots organization among Tunisians.

Emerging nationalist leaders begin advocating for reforms and greater political participation, setting the stage for the organized resistance movements that will significantly impact Tunisian political life in subsequent decades.

Libya: Sanusi Resistance and Italian Occupation

Libya experiences significant upheaval as Italy initiates a military invasion in 1911, formally establishing its colonial rule in 1912 after overcoming fierce resistance. The Sanusi Order, already influential under the leadership of Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Sanusi, becomes a central force in the anti-colonial resistance. Following the Mahdi’s death in 1902, his successor, Ahmed Sharif as-Sanusi, and later Omar al-Mukhtar, intensify the jihad against Italian forces.

Despite brutal Italian military campaigns and oppressive tactics, the Sanusi-led resistance remains resilient, particularly in Cyrenaica, where the Sanusis maintain substantial territorial control and widespread tribal allegiance. This persistent resistance foreshadows ongoing conflict and anti-colonial struggles in the decades to follow.

Morocco: Establishment of French and Spanish Protectorates

Morocco's sovereignty is significantly undermined as it is formally divided into French and Spanish protectorates in 1912, following the Treaty of Fez. The French protectorate, controlling the majority of the country, implements extensive colonial reforms designed to benefit French settlers and economic interests. Sultan Moulay Abd al-Hafid, facing overwhelming pressure, abdicates, and the new Sultan, Moulay Youssef, assumes a largely ceremonial role under French supervision.

The Spanish protectorate in northern Morocco faces fierce resistance, notably during the Rif War (1921–1926), led by Abd el-Krim, who successfully mobilizes tribal forces against Spanish occupation, achieving significant military victories and establishing the short-lived Republic of the Rif. His resistance gains international attention and significantly inspires anti-colonial sentiment throughout North Africa.

Socioeconomic Impacts and Nationalist Awakening

Across North Africa, the socioeconomic impacts of colonial policies intensify. Indigenous populations increasingly suffer from economic disenfranchisement and marginalization, prompting growing urban poverty and rural displacement. These pressures catalyze a more profound nationalist awakening, as educated elites and grassroots activists advocate political and social reforms, calling for independence and self-determination.

By 1923, North Africa stands at a critical juncture. Entrenched colonial structures face mounting local resistance, and nationalist movements lay the foundation for sustained anti-colonial struggles that will shape the region's political future profoundly.

North Africa (1924–1935 CE)

Escalation of Nationalist Movements and Colonial Repression

The period from 1924 to 1935 in North Africa is characterized by intensified nationalist activities, increasing colonial repression, and significant socio-political developments across Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco.

Algeria: Rising Nationalism and Colonial Response

In Algeria, the oppressive conditions foster a more organized nationalist response among indigenous populations. French colonial authorities maintain strict control, implementing policies that continue to disenfranchise Algerians economically and politically. The North African Star (Étoile Nord-Africaine), founded in 1926, emerges as the first significant Algerian nationalist organization advocating independence from French rule, led by influential figures such as Messali Hadj. Despite French suppression and surveillance, the movement persists, mobilizing Algerians through grassroots activism and political education.

Socioeconomic hardships intensify, with rural impoverishment and urban overcrowding becoming chronic. Nationalist sentiments increasingly spread among the working class, exacerbating tensions with European settlers and colonial authorities.

Tunisia: Nationalist Mobilization and the Destour Party

In Tunisia, the nationalist movement gains significant momentum with the establishment of the Destour Party in 1920, which rapidly expands in influence and membership through the 1920s and early 1930s. Its demands for constitutional reform, increased Tunisian representation, and reduced French interference resonate broadly among the Tunisian population.

Economic conditions deteriorate under the protectorate regime, fueling resentment against French economic domination and social injustices. Although French colonial authorities attempt to suppress nationalist activities through arrests and censorship, Tunisian nationalism continues to grow stronger, setting the stage for more intense confrontations in subsequent decades.

Libya: Sanusi Resistance under Omar al-Mukhtar

Libya sees continued and intensified resistance against Italian colonial rule, especially under the leadership of Omar al-Mukhtar, the renowned Sanusi military and spiritual leader. Omar al-Mukhtar mobilizes tribes across Cyrenaica, employing guerrilla warfare tactics effectively against the Italian forces. Despite significant losses and harsh reprisals from Italy, his resilience maintains resistance momentum throughout the 1920s.

In 1931, however, Omar al-Mukhtar is captured by Italian forces and executed, significantly weakening the organized resistance. Italy consolidates its colonial control, implementing repressive policies designed to suppress further opposition and integrate Libya more firmly into its empire.

Morocco: The Rif War and Nationalist Consequences

Morocco witnesses fierce resistance against Spanish colonial rule in the northern region, culminating in the Rif War. Under the leadership of Abd el-Krim, the Republic of the Rif achieves remarkable military successes against Spanish forces between 1921 and 1926, earning international recognition and inspiring nationalist movements across North Africa.

However, joint French and Spanish military operations ultimately crush the Rif Republic in 1926, forcing Abd el-Krim into exile. Despite this defeat, his resistance profoundly influences Moroccan nationalist sentiments, leading to the formation of political organizations like the Istiqlal Party in the early 1930s, which begins actively advocating Moroccan independence.

Socioeconomic Struggles and Nationalist Consciousness

Throughout North Africa, colonial policies exacerbate socioeconomic disparities, triggering urban poverty, rural displacement, and widespread discontent. The economic hardships provide fertile ground for nationalist ideologies, prompting greater mobilization and organization among educated elites, urban workers, and rural populations.

By 1935, nationalist movements across the region have significantly matured. Despite colonial repression and military defeats, the drive for independence has firmly taken root, setting the stage for intensified anti-colonial struggles in the ensuing decades.

The Republic of the Rif had been formally constituted on February 1, 1923, with Muhammad Abd el-Krim as head of state.

Having created an effective command and power structure, Abd el-Krim has defeated the Spanish many times and driven hem back to a few coastal outposts.

Wishing to create a stable state for the Berbers, Abd el-Krim has sent representatives to London and Paris to try to establish diplomatic relations with Europe, but the French are anxious about the growing strength of Abd el-Krim's young republic, which could in the future drive the French occupation completely from Morocco, given time to gather forces and weapons.

Abd el-Krim's rhetoric concentrates on the right for freedom for all people, a message not well received by the European colonial forces.

In May 1924, the French Army had established a line of posts north of the Oureghla River in disputed tribal territory.

On April 13, 1925 an estimated 8,000 Rifs attack this line and in two weeks 39 of 66 French posts have been stormed or abandoned.

The French accordingly intervene on the side of Spain, employing up to 300,000 well-trained and well-equipped troops from Metropolitan, North African, Senegalese and Foreign Legion units.

In late 1925, the French and Spanish governments create a joint task force to attack the territories of the new Republic of the Rif, employing massive bombing, some of which involves German-designed chemical weapons used by the Spanish army.

Lietenant General José Sanjuro, High Commissioner of Spain in Morocco l. In 1925 he participated in the disembarkation of Alhucemas, participates in the disembarkation of Spanish troops at Alhucemas, claiming the territory for Spain and naming the territory after himself, namely Villa Sanjurjo.

(Many locals still call the city "Villa" in addition to the official Al Hoceima.)

Colonel Francisco Franco, commander of the Spanish Foreign Legion from 1923, leads the first wave of troops ashore at Alhucemas in 1925 and begins attacking from the north.

This amphibious landing in the heartland of Abd el-Krim's tribe, combined with the French invasion from the south, heralds the beginning of the end for the Rif Republic.