Eastern Southeast Europe (928–939 CE): Social Reforms and Religious Movements

The Breton Resistance to Norman Expansion and the Flight of Alan II Wrybeard (933–935)

As William Longsword of Normandy expands his domain westward into Brittany in 933, Breton leaders, particularly Alan II Wrybeard, Duke of Brittany, and Judicael Berenger, Count of Rennes, lead a resistance movement against Norman rule. However, their efforts are short-lived, ending with Alan fleeing to England and Judicael Berenger seeking reconciliation with the Normans.

---

Breton Resistance Against the Normans (933–935)

• The Norman annexation of Avranches and the Cotentin in 933 under William Longsword severely weakens Brittany, which had already suffered from decades of Viking incursions and noble infighting.
• Alan II Wrybeard (son of Count Mathuedoï of Poher) and Judicael Berenger of Rennes attempt to mobilize Breton forces against the Norman advance.
• The Bretons engage in skirmishes with the Normans, but their forces lack the strength and unity to mount an effective resistance.

---

The Collapse of the Breton Resistance (c. 935)

• The Normans, better organized and supported by West Francia, quickly overpower the Breton resistance.
• Alan II Wrybeard, seeing no path to victory, flees to England, seeking refuge with King Æthelstan, who had supported previous Breton exiles during Viking invasions of Brittany.
• Judicael Berenger of Rennes, realizing continued resistance is futile, seeks reconciliation with William Longsword, effectively submitting to Norman rule in order to retain his lands and influence.

---

Consequences of the Breton Defeat

1. Normandy Strengthens Its Hold Over Western Francia

   • William Longsword further consolidates Norman rule in the west, making Normandy the dominant power in northern France.

2. Brittany Remains in Disarray

   • With Alan II in exile and Judicael Berenger submitting to the Normans, Brittany loses its independence, becoming a fragmented and weakened region.
   • Viking influence in Brittany remains strong, with Norman control extending deeper into Breton lands.

3. The Beginning of Norman-Breton Rivalry

   • Although Brittany is temporarily subdued, Breton leaders will later return to reclaim their homeland, setting the stage for future conflicts between Brittany and Normandy.

---

Conclusion: Brittany Falls, but Resistance Will Continue

The defeat of the Breton resistance (c. 935) marks the temporary end of an independent Brittany, as Normandy extends its reach westward. However, Alan II Wrybeard’s flight to England ensures that Breton leadership survives in exile, setting the stage for his eventual return and the restoration of Brittany in later years.

 

The Breton Succession Struggle: Conan II vs. Odo of Penthièvre (1048–1057)

Upon the death of Duke Alan III of Brittany, his eight-year-old son, Conan II, inherited the Duchy of Brittany. However, his uncle Odo, Count of Penthièvre, assumed control as regent and later refused to relinquish powerwhen Conan reached his majority around 1048. This led to a bitter conflict between uncle and nephew, entangling Anjou, Normandy, and the Capetian monarchy in Breton affairs.

---

Odo’s Usurpation and Early Conflict (1048–1054)

• As regent, Odo of Penthièvre had ruled Brittany in Conan’s name, but by 1048, he had refused to step down, claiming power for himself.
• Hoël of Cornouaille, Odo’s brother-in-law, supported Odo, aiming to expand his own influence in Brittany.
• Meanwhile, Conan began asserting his claim to the duchy, leading to years of conflict between the rival factions.
• The conflict expanded beyond Brittany, as Conan fought Geoffrey II of Anjou, a powerful regional force.

---

Odo’s Alliance with King Henry I of France and the Battle of Mortemer (1054)

• In February 1054, Odo fought against Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Mortemer, alongside King Henry I of France and Angevin forces.
• William’s decisive victory at Mortemer weakened the French-Angevin coalition, but Odo remained allied with Anjou and continued opposing Conan’s rule.

---

Conan II Gains the Upper Hand (1056–1057)

• By 1056, Conan II had begun to gain the upper hand in Brittany, forcing his uncle into retreat.
• In 1057, Conan captured Odo and imprisoned him in chains, effectively ending his uncle’s direct claim to the ducal title.
• Later that same year, Conan came to terms with Hoël of Cornouaille, neutralizing one of his main opponents.

---

The Continuation of Resistance

• Though Odo was imprisoned, his eldest son, Geoffrey Boterel, continued to resist Conan’s rule, ensuring that conflict in Brittany was not entirely settled.
• Conan’s struggles with Anjou and internal opposition would continue to shape his reign, as Brittany remained a contested and politically volatile region.

---

Legacy and Consequences

• Conan II’s triumph over Odo solidified his rule over Brittany, but the duchy remained embroiled in broader regional conflicts involving Normandy, Anjou, and France.
• His alliance with William of Normandy positioned Brittany closer to Norman interests, affecting later Breton-Norman relations leading up to the Norman conquest of England.
• The fall of Odo of Penthièvre marked the decline of his faction, but his family’s resistance through Geoffrey Boterel ensured that Brittany remained unstable for years.

By 1057, Conan II had effectively asserted his ducal authority, but Brittany’s internal power struggles and entanglements with Normandy and Anjou would continue to define the region’s political landscape throughout the late 11th century.

...the Norman army, with Harold Godwinson among them, pursued Conan to Rennes and finally to Dinan.

 

Brittany and Its Shifting Alliances After the Death of William the Conqueror (1087)

Following William the Conqueror’s death in 1087, the Duchy of Brittany regained its independence, no longer tied to Norman authority. Although many Breton lords had supported William’s conquest of England, receiving large estates there, Brittany itself remained politically fragmented. The French king maintained envoys in the region, ensuring that Brittany remained within the sphere of Capetian influence, though without true centralized control.

---

Breton Lords and the Norman Conquest of England

• Many Breton lords played a key role in William’s invasion of England (1066), including:

  • Alan Rufus, who was granted vast estates in Yorkshire and became one of the wealthiest landowners in England.
  • Ralph de Gael, who was made Earl of Norfolk, though he later rebelled against William in 1075.
  • Other Breton nobles, such as Judicael of Totnes and Geoffrey de Dinan, also received landholdings.

• These lords remained active in English affairs, but their ties to Brittany were complex, as they were more closely aligned with Norman or English interests than with the fragmented Breton duchy.

---

Brittany’s Fragmented Political Landscape

• Brittany was not a united nation, with local lords holding significant power rather than the duke ruling as an absolute authority.
• Alliances were fluid and often overlapping, with some Breton nobles aligning with Normandy, while others maintained ties with the French crown.
• The King of France maintained envoys in Brittany, ensuring that the duchy remained within the Capetian sphere of influence but without direct control.

---

Brittany’s Status After 1087: Independence from Normandy

• William’s death in 1087 marked a shift, as Brittany once again regained its independence from Norman dominance.
• The duchy no longer had to acknowledge Norman overlordship, though Norman and English influence remained strong due to landholdings in England.
• The Capetian monarchy sought to assert greater influence in Brittany, though the region remained politically decentralized, with powerful local lords acting autonomously.

---

Consequences and Future Developments

• The Breton lords in England maintained their estates, making them key players in both English and Breton politics.
• The Duchy of Brittany, while independent, remained divided, as internal rivalries and external pressures from France and Normandy shaped its future.
• Brittany’s strategic position meant that it continued to be a contested region, caught between the expanding power of the Capetians and the ambitions of the Normans and English.

The death of William the Conqueror in 1087 allowed Brittany to reclaim its independence, but the duchy remained politically fractured, with its lords entangled in Norman, English, and French affairs for generations to come.

The Breton Succession Crisis Escalates: French and English Involvement (1341–1342)

By mid-August 1341, John of Montfort had seized control of most of the Duchy of Brittany, including its three principal cities—Rennes, ...

 

The Breton Marriage Crisis and the Treaty of Laval (1489–1491)

Following the restrictive Treaty of Sablé (1488), the young duchess Anne of Brittany, determined to protect the sovereignty of her duchy, openly defied the French crown in 1489 by contracting a proxy marriage with the widowed Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Maximilian of Austria. This provocative act violated the terms of the earlier treaty, which explicitly required Anne to secure French royal permission before marrying. Anne’s bold decision immediately ignited a major international diplomatic crisis, drawing in major European powers including France, England, Austria, and Aragon.

Anne’s Proxy Marriage and European Responses (1489)

Anne’s proxy marriage to Maximilian profoundly alarmed King Charles VIII of France, who viewed the union as a direct threat to French interests, fearing Habsburg encirclement through Austria’s expanding territorial alliances. Charles quickly moved to counter this perceived Austrian threat by diplomatically isolating Anne and aggressively pressuring Brittany.

Simultaneously, Maximilian’s claim gained international backing, notably from King Henry VII of England and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. Both monarchs, wary of France’s growing influence, initially backed the Austrian claim to Brittany. However, Henry VII was cautious; he sought primarily to buy time, supporting a Breton regency while avoiding full-scale war with France.

Henry VII’s Diplomatic Strategy

England’s Henry VII, ever pragmatic, balanced diplomatic caution with measured military involvement. He supported the Breton regency, publicly pledged limited military assistance, and formed a strategic alliance with Aragon by arranging the future marriage of his heir, Prince Arthur, to Ferdinand’s infant daughter, Catherine of Aragon. This Anglo-Aragonese alliance was intended to counterbalance French dominance, reflecting the strategic complexity of late medieval diplomacy in Atlantic West Europe.

In practice, Henry’s military intervention remained limited and symbolic, meant more as diplomatic leverage than a genuine military challenge to France.

Treaty of Laval and Anne’s Submission (1491)

Faced with overwhelming French military pressure, Anne of Brittany's resistance ultimately proved untenable. Charles VIII, demonstrating formidable military strength by laying siege to Rennes, the Breton capital, compelled Anne into direct negotiations. Under severe pressure and increasingly isolated internationally, Anne reluctantly agreed to the Treaty of Laval (November 1491), renouncing her controversial marriage to Maximilian and consenting instead to marry Charles VIII.

Anne’s marriage to Charles was conditional: the French king was obliged, at least formally, to preserve Breton privileges and autonomy within the French state. Although Breton independence was effectively lost, Brittany maintained certain legal and administrative privileges, marking the compromise nature of Anne’s surrender.

Secret French-Aragonese Understanding

Behind the scenes, the geopolitical landscape had shifted. Aragon, previously supportive of Maximilian and allied with England, had secretly concluded a diplomatic understanding with France. This clandestine alliance, driven by mutual interest in isolating Maximilian’s expanding influence, further weakened Anne’s negotiating position and England’s diplomatic leverage. It underscored the shifting and often opaque alliances that characterized European diplomacy at this critical juncture.

Long-term Historical Significance

Anne’s marriage to Charles VIII under the Treaty of Laval fundamentally reshaped European geopolitics. Brittany was effectively annexed to France through dynastic marriage, ending centuries of fiercely defended Breton independence. For Maximilian and the Habsburgs, this represented a major diplomatic humiliation, exacerbating Franco-Habsburg rivalries that would dominate the European political landscape throughout the sixteenth century.

England, having lost its diplomatic foothold in Brittany, sought alternative alliances, notably strengthening ties with Spain through the Aragonese marriage alliance, which would later play a significant role in the complex dynastic and religious conflicts of the Tudor period.

In short, the Breton marriage crisis and the resulting Treaty of Laval profoundly reshaped the geopolitical dynamics of late medieval Atlantic West Europe, marking a pivotal step toward the consolidation of centralized monarchies and laying the groundwork for major conflicts and diplomatic alliances in the early modern era.

François Viète, seigneur de la Bigotiere, publishes his Canon mathematicus seu ad triangula (“Mathematical Laws Applied to Triangles”) in 1579, probably the first western European work dealing with a systematic development of methods—utilizing all six trigonometric functions—for computing plane and spherical triangles.

The town of Rennes in Brittany, situated at the confluence of the Ille and Vilaine rivers, in 1720 loses all the timber framed houses in the northern part of the city to fire.

The city is rebuilt from a grid plan that gives it wide, regular streets and a main axis running east and west along the canalized Vilaine.

The rebuilding is done in stone.

Serial poisoner Hélène Jégado is arrested in Rennes, France, on July 1, 1851.

Later inquiries link her to twenty-three suspected deaths by poisoning between 1833 and 1841, but none of these are thoroughly investigated since they are outside the ten-year limit for prosecution and there is no scientific evidence.

Local folklore has attributed to her many unexplained deaths, some of which were almost certainly due to natural causes.

The most reliable estimate is that she probably committed about thirty-six murders.

Although there is not much information stating why she committed these crimes, it can generally be linked to psychological issues.

Jégado once stated that murdering people gave her a sense of power, which she enjoyed.