The Jokyu War, also known as the Jokyu Disturbance or the Jokyu Rebellion, is fought in Japan between the forces of Retired Emperor Go-Toba and those of the Hojo clan, regents of the Kamakura shogunate, whom the retired emperor is trying to overthrow.

The main battle occurs at Uji, just outside Kyoto; this is the third battle to be fought there in less than half a century.

It takes place in 1221, that is, the third year of the Jokyu era.

Genghis Khan's invasion of Khwarezmia from 1219 to 1221 marks the beginning of the Mongol conquest of the Islamic states.

The Mongol expansion will ultimately culminate in the conquest of virtually all of Eurasia, save for Western Europe, Fennoscandia, the Byzantine Empire, Arabia, most of the Indian subcontinent, Japan and parts of Southeast Asia.

Harboring a pathological dislike for cultivators, Genghis Khan destroys several irrigation systems, transforming turned fertile soils into permanent deserts.

By the time of his death in 1227, the Mongols, centered in their capital at Karakoram, possess an empire stretching from Korea to Russian Turkistan and from Siberia to northern India.

The Mongol Empire’s original intention was not to invade the Khwarezmid Empire.

According to the Persian historian Juzjani, Genghis Khan had originally sent a message to the Khwarezm Shah Empire, Ala ad-Din Muhammad, seeking trade, greeted him as his neighbor.

The Mongols' original unification of the nomadic tribes in Mongolia, followed by Turkmens and other nomadic peoples, had come with relatively little bloodshed, and almost no material loss.

Even his invasions of China, to that point, had involved no more bloodshed than previous nomadic invasions had caused.

Shah Muhammad had reluctantly agreed to this peace treaty, but it was not to last.

The war starts less than a year later, when a Mongol caravan and its envoys are massacred in the Khwarezmian city of Otrar.

In this brief war, lasting less than two years, not only is a huge empire destroyed utterly, but Genghis Khan introduces the world to tactics that will not be seen again until the Germans use them so well in the Second World War—indirect attack, and the complete and utter terrorization and wholesale slaughter of entire populations.

Northeast Europe (1216–1227 CE): Danish and German Dominance, Baltic Resistance, and the Formation of Danish Estonia

Introduction

Between 1216 and 1227 CE, Northeast Europe saw decisive military successes of the Northern Crusades, the formation of organized crusader states, and continued resilience among the Baltic peoples. The era notably witnessed the territorial division following the Livonian Crusade, with the establishment of Danish Estonia and the Livonian Confederation under German control, fundamentally reshaping the political and cultural landscape of the eastern Baltic.

Danish Estonia and the Founding of Reval (Tallinn)

Following significant territorial conquests during the Livonian Crusade, the German- and Danish-occupied Baltic territories were formally divided. The northern territories fell under direct Danish control, forming Danish Estonia. In 1219, Danish King Valdemar II "the Victorious" led a crucial invasion at Lyndanisse, resulting in the founding of Reval (modern-day Tallinn). Here, the Danes constructed the prominent fortress known as Castrum Danorum ("Danish Castle") atop Toompea Hill, symbolizing Danish authority and dominance.

The city's Estonian name, "Tallinn," is often linked through urban legend to Taani linna, meaning "Danish town" or "castle," reflecting Denmark's lasting imprint on local historical memory.

Livonian Confederation under German Influence

Concurrently, the southern territories conquered by German crusading orders were organized into the Livonian Confederation by the Papal legate William of Modena. This confederation encompassed significant parts of modern-day Latvia and Estonia, where German crusaders and clergy firmly established political and ecclesiastical dominance. The Confederation became a crucial stronghold, serving as a military, economic, and ecclesiastical center integral to the wider crusading effort.

Continued Swedish Expansion in Finland

Swedish colonization and missionary work persisted vigorously in southern Finland, consolidating earlier gains. The accelerated settlement and cultural integration deepened Finland’s ties to Sweden, setting it apart politically and culturally from its Finnic relatives to the south, especially the Estonians under Danish and German rule.

Persistent Baltic Resistance and Rebellions

Despite substantial territorial losses and crusader occupation, Baltic tribes—particularly Estonians, Latvians, Curonians, and Semigallians—remained defiant. Numerous rebellions erupted, challenging foreign rule, and forcing Danish and German forces to maintain strong military presences and extensive fortifications throughout occupied lands. This ongoing resistance emphasized local determination to preserve autonomy and traditional cultural identities.

Economic Prosperity and Urbanization

The establishment of Reval (Tallinn) under Danish rule, along with the already thriving German-founded city of Riga, significantly expanded regional trade and urban development. Both cities became key economic hubs, fostering trade between the Scandinavian, Baltic, and broader European markets. Commerce in established centers such as Visby on Gotland continued to flourish, underscoring the expanding influence of merchant guilds and urban life.

Ecclesiastical Dominance and Cultural Integration

Ecclesiastical institutions significantly expanded their influence during this era, consolidating their power through bishoprics and monastic establishments across newly conquered territories. The establishment of the Livonian Confederation reinforced the ecclesiastical structure, as German clergy and monastic orders actively managed the religious, educational, and cultural integration of local populations into Latin Christendom.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 1216 to 1227 CE profoundly influenced Northeast Europe's historical trajectory. The territorial division of Baltic lands into Danish Estonia and the German-dominated Livonian Confederation reshaped regional political boundaries, fortified urban growth, and entrenched ecclesiastical authority. Persistent Baltic resistance highlighted the ongoing struggle between conquest and autonomy, setting enduring cultural and political patterns that would significantly impact future centuries.

The German- and Danish-occupied territory is divided after the success of the Livonian Crusade into the Livonian Confederation, which is organized by William of Modena, and Danish Estonia.

The capital of Danish Estonia is Reval (Tallinn), founded at the place of Lyndanisse after the invasion of 1219.

The Danes build the fortress of Castrum Danorum at Toompea Hill.

Estonians still call their capital "Tallinn", which according to an urban legend derives from Taani linna (Danish town or castle).

Neidhart von Reuenthal, who writes for the Bavarian court, composes narrative poems often depicting peasant brawling from a perspective of aristocratic disdain.

Very well known for being rather sarcastic and comical, Neidhart like his elder contemporary Walther von der Vogelweide, breaks with the conventionalized lyric of courtly love, turning instead to the subject of rustic courtships.

More melodies survive by him than from any other minnesinger.

The Latin Empire of Constantinople by 1216 includes territories in northwest Anatolia adjacent to the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles and eastern Thrace as far as Adrianople and the lower Maritza.

The Latin emperor also claims suzerainty over the Crusader States in Greece: the kingdom of Thessalonica, the principality of Nicaea, and the duchy of Athens.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1216–1227 CE): Stabilization, Bulgarian Resurgence, and Regional Dynamics

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Bulgarian Restoration and Expansion

Under Tsar Ivan Asen II, the Second Bulgarian Empire significantly stabilized and expanded. Ivan Asen II restored law and order, curbed the power of the boyars (nobility), and strengthened the administrative structure, fostering growth in Bulgarian settlements and economic revival.

Continued Latin and Greek Rivalries

Latin-controlled territories around Constantinople continued to witness migration and settlement shifts as Western European knights and nobles sought new holdings. Meanwhile, Byzantine successor states such as the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus gradually consolidated and expanded, drawing populations loyal to Byzantine traditions.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Revival under Bulgarian Rule

Bulgarian economic life flourished during Ivan Asen II's reign, with agricultural productivity and regional trade significantly increasing. Towns and urban centers within Bulgaria prospered, benefiting from political stability and enhanced trade connections.

Localized Economies and Trade Networks

Fragmentation encouraged the growth of localized economies across the region. Serbian, Bulgarian, and Latin territories developed independent trade networks, with local markets increasingly vital due to the reduced influence of centralized Byzantine trade.

Strengthened Military Infrastructure

Ivan Asen II invested significantly in military fortifications, securing Bulgaria’s borders against Latin and Byzantine threats. Similar enhancements occurred in Serbian and Latin-held territories, reflecting ongoing regional tensions and the necessity of robust defense systems.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Bulgarian Cultural Flourishing

The reign of Ivan Asen II marked a revival of Bulgarian cultural traditions, including the construction and embellishment of churches, monasteries, and fortresses. Artistic production flourished, blending Byzantine heritage with distinctive Bulgarian elements.

Latin-Byzantine Cultural Exchanges

Cultural interaction between Latin rulers and Byzantine traditions persisted, especially within contested territories. Gothic and Romanesque influences continued to blend with Byzantine aesthetics, creating distinctive regional artistic styles.

Social and Religious Developments

Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Autonomy

Ivan Asen II further strengthened the autonomy of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, reinforcing its role in society and governance. Religious institutions grew more influential, supporting national identity and cohesion amidst ongoing regional rivalries.

Latin-Orthodox Tensions

Deep religious tensions persisted between Latin and Orthodox communities, particularly in regions where Latin rulers maintained control over Orthodox populations. These tensions often complicated political alliances and social relations.

Serbian Church Influence

The Serbian Orthodox Church continued to consolidate its influence under Serbian rulers, playing a crucial role in societal cohesion and reinforcing Serbian national identity.

Political Stabilization and Rivalries

Bulgarian Regional Dominance

Ivan Asen II's effective governance reasserted Bulgarian dominance in the Balkans, significantly influencing regional politics. Bulgaria’s strengthened military, economic growth, and cultural revival re-established it as a formidable power.

Persistent Fragmentation and Rivalries

Despite stabilization under Ivan Asen II, the broader region remained politically fragmented. Rivalries among Bulgaria, Serbia, the Latin Empire, and Byzantine successor states like Nicaea and Epirus continued, perpetuating instability and shaping future conflicts.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1216 to 1227 CE was marked by the consolidation and expansion of the Second Bulgarian Empire under Ivan Asen II, significant economic and cultural revival, and ongoing political fragmentation across Eastern Southeast Europe. These developments had lasting impacts, setting the stage for future regional dynamics, enduring cultural identities, and complex political rivalries.

Bulgarian tsar Ivan Asen II restores law and order in the Bulgarian Empire, controlling the boyars.

Kalinga Magha moves the capital to the Jaffna peninsula, which is more secure due to the heavy Vanni forest, after the conquest of Rajarata.

Ruling as a tribute-paying subordinate of the Chola empire of Tanjavur, in modern Tamil Nadu, India, with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern Kerala and Damila regions on the mainland, Kalinga Magha’s priorities are to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible.

His reign sees the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.

Sri Lanka will never really recover from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion.