The Satsuma domain has become closer to the British, despite the bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863, and is pursuing the modernization of its army and navy with their support.

The Scottish dealer Thomas Blake Glover sells quantities of warships and guns to the southern domains.

American and British military experts, usually former officers, may have been directly involved in this military effort.

The British ambassador Harry Smith Parkes supported the anti-Shogunate forces in a drive to establish a legitimate, unified Imperial rule in Japan, and to counter French influence with the Shogunate.

During this period, southern Japanese leaders such as Saigō Takamori of Satsuma, or ...