The monarchy is restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.

Northwest Europe (1660–1671 CE): Restoration, Consolidation, and Colonial Ambitions

England: Restoration of the Monarchy

Following a period of republican rule, the monarchy was restored in 1660 with the coronation of Charles II, son of the executed Charles I. This event, known as the Restoration, marked a profound shift back to traditional monarchical governance. Charles II sought reconciliation, issuing the Declaration of Breda promising leniency and liberty of conscience. However, tensions persisted between royal authority and parliamentary power, foreshadowing future conflicts. Overall, the Restoration led to an overall reduction in the power of the crown.

Ireland: Continued English Dominance

In Ireland, the Restoration reinforced English dominance established during the Cromwellian Conquest. Land confiscations from Catholic proprietors were largely upheld, maintaining Protestant ascendancy. The Act of Settlement (1662) confirmed land redistribution, significantly impacting the Irish Catholic population. Resentments continued, fueling sectarian tensions.

Scotland: Restoration and Religious Conflict

The monarchy's restoration in Scotland under Charles II saw renewed religious tensions, as the king sought to enforce episcopal governance over a largely Presbyterian populace. The period saw significant religious persecution, notably through the imposition of the Clarendon Code and Covenanter suppression, heightening internal discord and resistance.

Maritime and Colonial Expansion

The English East India Company strengthened its trade and territorial control in Asia, notably gaining Bombay from Portugal as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza upon her marriage to Charles II in 1662. This acquisition significantly enhanced England’s strategic maritime position. The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) further challenged Dutch commercial supremacy. Despite mixed military success, England secured crucial territorial gains, notably New Amsterdam(renamed New York), fundamentally reshaping colonial dynamics in North America. The East India Company's strength was bolstered by King Charles II's grant of autonomy around 1670, including rights to territorial acquisitions, minting money, commanding fortresses and troops, and exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction.

Scandinavia: Territorial and Political Adjustments

Denmark-Norway under Frederick III continued to consolidate authority following losses to Sweden. The period was characterized by absolutist reforms, notably through the introduction of hereditary and absolute monarchy in 1660, stabilizing internal governance and strengthening royal control. Territorial tensions with Sweden persisted, though temporarily subdued.

Scientific and Intellectual Flourishing

The Royal Society in England, formally chartered in 1662, accelerated scientific and intellectual developments. Notable figures such as Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke emerged, contributing groundbreaking insights into mathematics, physics, and biology. This vibrant scientific community laid essential groundwork for the Age of Enlightenment.

Cultural and Literary Renaissance

This period marked a literary and cultural renaissance. Playwrights like John Dryden flourished under royal patronage, crafting satirical and politically charged dramas reflective of the Restoration’s social dynamics. Additionally, literary activity burgeoned, notably with John Milton completing his epic masterpiece Paradise Lost in 1667, profoundly influencing English literature.

Religious and Social Dynamics

Religious tolerance fluctuated during this era. The return of the monarchy initially seemed to promise greater tolerance, yet punitive measures like the Clarendon Code limited religious freedoms significantly for non-Anglicans. Social dynamics remained complex, particularly regarding religious minorities such as Catholics and Jews, who continued to engage actively in international trade and commerce.

Crisis and Catastrophe

London suffered a visitation of the plague in 1665, followed by the Great Fire of 1666, which raged for five days, destroying approximately fifteen thousand buildings.

Legacy of the Era

By 1671, Northwest Europe had stabilized significantly compared to the turmoil of previous decades, yet underlying tensions remained unresolved. The Restoration's political settlement set precedents for later constitutional developments, while continued colonial expansion firmly positioned England for future imperial dominance. Scientific and cultural advances laid crucial intellectual foundations, and the era’s complexities foreshadowed ongoing struggles around governance, religion, and social order.

London suffers a visitation of the plague in 1665, then in 1666 the capital is swept by the Great Fire, which rages for five days, destroying approximately fifteen thousand buildings.

After the Restoration, there is an overall reduction in the power of the crown.

The Dutch having inflicted considerable damage on the British fleet in the Four Days Battle, de Witt orders de Ruyter to carry out a plan that has been prepared for over a year: to land in the Medway to destroy the British fleet while it is being repaired in the Chatham dockyards.

For this purpose, ten fluyt ships (an inexpensive Dutch type of sailing vessel originally designed as a dedicated cargo vessel) and one that can be built in large numbers carry twenty-seven hundred man of the newly created Dutch Marine Corps, one of the first in history to be specialized in amphibious landings.

Also, de Ruyter is to combine his fleet with the French one.

The French, however, don't show up and bad weather prevents the landing.

De Ruyter has to limit his actions to a blockade of the Thames.

He observes on the 1st of August that the British fleet is leaving port—earlier than expected.

Next, a storm drives the Dutch fleet back to the Flemish coast.

De Ruyter on July 3 again crosses the North Sea, leaving behind the troop ships.

The St. James Day Battle (also known as the St. James' Day Fight, the Battle of the North Foreland and the Battle of Orfordness) takes place on July 25, 1666—St. James' day in the Julian calendar currently in use in England (August 4, 1666 in the Gregorian calendar).

The English fleet is commanded jointly by Rupert and Monck; the fleet of the United Provinces is commanded by de Ruyter.

The battle is known in The Netherlands as the Two Days' Battle.

The battle is a clear English victory, though the separate clash of the two rears is a victory for Tromp.

Dutch casualties are enormous, estimated immediately after the battle at about five thousand men, compared with three hundred British killed; later, more precise information will show that only about twelve hundred of these have been killed or seriously wounded.

However, the Dutch only lose two ships: de Ruyter had been successful at saving almost the complete van, only Sneek and Tholen have struck their flag, and they can quickly repair the damage.

The twin disasters of the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London, however, combined with his financial mismanagement, have left Charles II without the funds to continue the war.

In fact, he had had only enough reserves for this one last battle.

Plague cases continue at a modest pace until the Great Fire of London, a major conflagration that sweeps through the central parts of the English capital, from Sunday, September 2 to Wednesday, September 5, 1666, guts the medieval City of London inside the old Roman City Wall.

It threatens, but does not reach, the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums.

It consumes thirteen thousand two hundred houses, eighty-seven parish churches, St. Paul's Cathedral, and most of the buildings of the City authorities.

It is estimated that it destroyed the homes of seventy thousand of the City's approximately eighty thousand inhabitants.

The plague outbreak tapers off at about the same time. (The death toll from the fire is unknown and is traditionally thought to have been small, as only six verified deaths were recorded. This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle-class people were not recorded anywhere, and that the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims, leaving no recognizable remains.)

England’s population is about four times as large as that of the Dutch Republic, but as this population is dominated by poor peasants, the only source of ready cash are the cities.

The Dutch urban population exceeds that of England in both proportional and absolute terms.

The outbreak of war had been followed ominously by the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London, hitting the only major urban center of the country.

These events, occurring in such close succession, have crippled England, as the English fleet had suffered from cash shortages even before these calamities.

The navy does not pay its sailors with money, but with "tickets", or debt certificates.

Charles lacks an effective means of enforcing taxation.

The only way to finance the war, in effect, is to capture Dutch trade fleets.