Al-Muqanna, espousing a mixture of Shiite, Zoroastrian and Manichaean belief systems, has commanded his rebel troops in battles with Abbasid forces or about three years in the field until forced to withdraw to his fortress of Sanam, near Kesh, whence he carries on warfare for another two years before he is eventually defeated.

He poisons himself in 738 rather than surrender to the Abbasids, who had set fire to his house when he was on the verge of being captured.

The Romans had initiated another war with the Bulgarians in 780, pushing the Bulgarian frontier to the north by 783, when hostilities cease.

The caliph's teenaged son, Harun al-Rashid, has led a number of charges against the Romans, his several victories enabling the Muslims' westward advance.

Reaching the Bosporus in 783, the Muslims defeat the Romans at Nicomedia (Izmit of Kocaeli).

Trapped on his return march, he is rescued by the defection of the imperial general Tatzates, with many of his men.

His defection, however, is kept secret for a while, allowing Harun to seize the imperial envoys, Staurakios among them, who had come to negotiate a truce.

The Abbasid commander was thus able to dictate harsh terms to Empress-regent Irene of Athens, who promises tribute.

Harun appoints Tatzates as governor of Armenia.

A devout Christian, Charles protects and helps develop Jewish culture and commerce in his kingdom.

Regarding the Jews as an economic asset, he prevents the Church from placing excessive restrictions on them.

Jews are permitted to employ Christians and can freely practice their religion.

As the Muslims control much of the Mediterranean, the Jews begin to take on the role of commercial mediators.

Kammu moves the capital to Heian (Kyoto), which will remain the imperial capital for the next thousand years, doing so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically.

Kyoto has good river access to the sea and can be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces.

The early Heian period (794-967) continues Nara culture; the Heian capital is patterned on the Chinese capital at Chang' an, as is Nara, but on a larger scale.

Despite the decline of the Taika-Taiho reforms, imperial government is vigorous during the early Heian period.

Indeed, Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreases the intensity of political struggles, and he becomes recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.

Factional fighting at the imperial court continues throughout the Nara period.

Imperial family members, leading court families, such as the Fujiwara, and Buddhist priests all contend for influence.

In the late Nara period, financial burdens on the state increase, and the court begins dismissing nonessential officials.

In 792 universal conscription is abandoned, and district heads are allowed to establish private militia forces for local police work.

Decentralization of authority becomes the rule despite the reforms of the Nara period.

Eventually, to return control to imperial hands, the capital is moved in 784 to Nagaoka and in 794 to Heiankyo (Capital of Peace and Tranquility) or Heian, about twenty-six kilometers north of Nara.

By the late eleventh century, the city will popularly be called Kyoto (Capital City), the name it will have ever since.

Buddhism begins to spread, despite such machinations, throughout Japan during the ensuing Heian period (794-1185) primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai (Heavenly Terrace) and Shingon (True Word).

Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra.

Shingon is an indigenous sect with close affiliations to original Indian, Tibetan, and Chinese Buddhist thought founded by Kukai (also called Kobo Daishi), who greatly impresses the emperors following Emperor Kanmu (782-806) and generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness, but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture.

Kanmu himself is a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which will rise to great power over the ensuing centuries.

A close relationship develops between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain and, as a result, Tendai emphasizes great reverence for the emperor and the nation.

East Central Europe (784–795 CE): Carolingian Victory over Saxons, Intensified Slavic Statehood, and Rising Pressure on the Avars

Between 784 and 795 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—witnessed critical transformations shaped by the expanding power of Charlemagne’s Carolingian Empire. After prolonged conflict, Charlemagne decisively subdued the Saxons, incorporating much of their territory into his growing empire. The Slavic principalities of Bohemia and Moravia intensified their efforts to solidify political institutions and defenses, anticipating Carolingian expansion. Meanwhile, the Avar Khaganate faced mounting Carolingian pressure, foreshadowing dramatic shifts to come, and Thuringia's longstanding autonomy increasingly diminished under direct Carolingian influence.

Political and Military Developments

Carolingian Conquest of Saxony

• By 785 CE, Charlemagne decisively ended the protracted Saxon resistance, incorporating substantial territories east of the Elbe into the Carolingian Empire. Saxon regions underwent forced Christianization and integration into Frankish governance structures.

Slavic State Consolidation

• Bohemian and Moravian principalities rapidly strengthened political and military structures in response to the nearby Carolingian presence. These developments laid firm foundations for future statehood, enhancing their internal governance and external diplomatic capabilities.

Increasing Carolingian Influence in Thuringia and Bavaria

• The autonomous duchy of Thuringia came under greater Carolingian political control, while Bavaria experienced heightened Frankish influence, gradually eroding its political independence and autonomy.

Avar Khaganate Under Pressure

• The Avar Khaganate increasingly faced military and diplomatic threats from the expanding Carolingian Empire, prompting strategic shifts and internal concerns about their long-term viability.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Integration Under Carolingian Influence

• Conquered Saxon territories experienced closer economic integration with Carolingian domains, facilitating trade expansion and the introduction of Frankish monetary systems, agricultural practices, and economic governance.

Continued Fortification and Defensive Infrastructure

• Bohemian, Moravian, Bavarian, and remaining Saxon communities reinforced existing defensive structures and settlements, responding proactively to Carolingian expansion and regional instability.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Carolingian Cultural Impact

• Saxon territories rapidly absorbed Carolingian religious, artistic, and administrative influences, marked by increased Christianization, shifts in burial practices, and the spread of Frankish-style artifacts.

Continued Slavic Cultural Identity

• Bohemian and Moravian Slavs maintained and further articulated distinct cultural identities through unique settlement patterns, artistic styles, ceramics, jewelry, and fortified constructions.

Avar Artistic and Cultural Continuity

• Despite external pressures, the Avars maintained strong cultural traditions, continuing to influence regional artistic styles, especially evident in metalworking and decorative arts.

Settlement and Urban Development

Saxon Urban Transformation

• Carolingian control accelerated urban development in Saxon territories, integrating them into Frankish administrative structures and establishing new fortified towns and economic centers.

Expansion of Slavic Political Centers

• Bohemian and Moravian settlements expanded as political and economic hubs, consolidating their position as centers of regional governance, trade, and culture.

Stability in Bavarian and Thuringian Settlements

• Bavarian and Thuringian urban and rural settlements continued to grow economically, though increasingly aligned with Carolingian political structures and trade networks.

Social and Religious Developments

Forced Christianization of Saxony

• Carolingian dominance introduced aggressive missionary activities and enforced conversion among the Saxons, significantly reshaping Saxon society and religious practices.

Centralized Slavic Leadership

• Slavic principalities in Bohemia and Moravia further centralized their leadership, strengthening governance structures and defensive capabilities amid increasing Carolingian presence.

Avar Societal Stability Amid Pressure

• The Avars retained internal cohesion and stability, though increasingly aware of and responsive to growing external Carolingian threats.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 784–795 CE dramatically reshaped the political landscape of East Central Europe, primarily through the decisive Carolingian victory over the Saxons. Intensified Slavic state-building, increased Carolingian dominance over Thuringia and Bavaria, and mounting pressures on the Avar Khaganate collectively foreshadowed the profound transformations that defined the subsequent medieval history of the region.

The Saxons, despite repeated setbacks, resist the Franks steadfastly, forever returning to raid Charlemagne's domains as soon as he turns his attention elsewhere.

Their main leader, Widukind, is a resilient and resourceful opponent, but eventually is defeated and baptized in 785.

The East Roman state, shrunken by the Slavic invasions and Islamic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, survives as a recognizable entity, grounded more firmly than ever in the Balkans and Asia Minor.

The Seventh Ecumenical Council, at the urging of Empress Irene, and with the support of Pope Adrian and Patriarch Nikephoros, representing seventeen-year-old Emperor Constantine VI, effectively ends the Eastern church's policy of iconoclasm in declaring that, whereas the veneration of images must be carefully distinguished from the worship due God alone, the practice is legitimate and the intercession of saints efficacious.