Atlantic Southwest Europe (1912–1923): Republican Turbulence, Rising Nationalism, and Social Struggle

Between 1912 and 1923, Atlantic Southwest Europe—including northern and central Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, northern León and Castile, northern Navarre, northern Rioja, and the Basque Country—faced significant political upheaval, escalating nationalist movements, social unrest, and economic instability. The era encompassed the challenges of Portugal’s unstable First Republic, the impact of World War I on regional economies, intensifying labor conflicts, and the rapid growth of cultural and nationalist identities, setting crucial foundations for later authoritarian responses in the region.

Political and Military Developments

Portugal: Republican Instability and Political Crisis

• Portugal’s young First Republic (1910–1926) struggled with intense factionalism, political instability, frequent government changes, and ineffective governance. Northern Portugal, particularly in urban areas such as Porto and Braga, witnessed growing frustration with republican authorities, economic hardship, and social unrest.

• Portugal’s controversial involvement in World War I (1916–1918) intensified national divisions, particularly in the northern provinces, where heavy conscription and casualties fueled popular resentment and political disillusionment.

Spain: Regional Nationalism and Central Government Tensions

• Spain, neutral during World War I, nonetheless experienced severe economic disruptions and social unrest. The government of Alfonso XIII (r. 1886–1931) faced increasing challenges from labor movements, regional nationalists, and conservative forces, exacerbated by wartime inflation and economic instability.

• In the Basque Country, the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) and other nationalist groups gained strength, promoting Basque autonomy, cultural revival, and linguistic preservation, leading to increasing friction with Madrid’s centralist policies.

Economic Developments: Wartime Prosperity and Postwar Crisis

Impact of World War I on Regional Economies

• Northern Spain’s neutrality during the war allowed brief economic prosperity, especially in the Basque Country (iron, steel, shipbuilding), Cantabria, and Asturias (coal mining), which supplied critical raw materials to both sides of the conflict, fueling temporary industrial growth and urban expansion.

• However, post-war economic adjustments resulted in severe downturns, factory closures, and widespread unemployment in industrial centers such as Bilbao, Santander, and Gijón, triggering major labor unrest and social tensions.

Portuguese Economic Difficulties

• Northern Portugal’s economy, heavily dependent on exports (textiles, wine), suffered considerably during and after the war, facing disruptions in trade routes, reduced demand, inflation, and rising unemployment.

• Economic stagnation and hardship in rural Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal intensified emigration pressures to the Americas, exacerbating regional economic disparities and demographic shifts.

Social and Urban Developments

Labor Movements and Social Conflict

• Severe economic downturns after World War I fueled heightened labor unrest throughout the region. Industrial cities—Bilbao, Porto, Vigo, Gijón—experienced widespread strikes, protests, and political radicalization, driven by growing socialist and anarcho-syndicalist movements.

• Labor organizations, notably the Spanish anarchist CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) and Portuguese labor federations, intensified activism, demanding improved working conditions, higher wages, and social reforms, occasionally leading to violent clashes with authorities.

Rising Urbanization and Social Inequality

• Continued urban growth exacerbated socio-economic disparities, with overcrowded, impoverished working-class districts in industrial cities such as Bilbao and Porto starkly contrasting affluent neighborhoods of industrialists and merchants.

• Public health crises, inadequate housing, and rising social tensions highlighted the severe urban inequalities, fueling further demands for social reform and contributing to increased political radicalization.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Expansion of Regional Nationalist and Cultural Identities

• Cultural revival flourished throughout Galicia, the Basque Country, and northern Portugal, marked by vibrant literary and artistic movements asserting regional distinctiveness. Notably, Galicia’s literary and linguistic revival and the Basque cultural renaissance significantly reinforced local identities and autonomy aspirations.

• Portuguese intellectual circles, particularly in Porto and Coimbra, engaged in dynamic cultural and political debates regarding national identity, republican ideals, secularism, and modernity, contributing to the nation’s intellectual climate.

Church-State Tensions and Catholic Social Movements

• In Portugal, the republican government pursued aggressive secular policies, intensifying tensions with the Catholic Church, particularly in conservative northern rural areas, fueling opposition and contributing to political divisions.

• In Spain, the Catholic Church maintained considerable social and political influence, especially in Galicia and the Basque Country, supporting conservative movements and occasionally conflicting with secular socialist and anarchist groups, deepening social divides.

Legacy and Significance

The period from 1912 to 1923 represented a crucial era of heightened political volatility, economic uncertainty, social conflict, and intense nationalist activity within Atlantic Southwest Europe. The fragility and eventual failure of Portugal’s First Republic paved the way for future authoritarian governance under António de Oliveira Salazar. In Spain, unresolved tensions between centralized authority and assertive regional identities, alongside rising social unrest and economic instability, set conditions leading toward eventual military dictatorship under Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1930). Culturally, this era significantly strengthened regional identities and nationalist aspirations, leaving a powerful legacy of political mobilization and cultural assertiveness that would shape the region’s trajectory throughout the turbulent decades ahead.