The Timurid ruler of Persia, Shahrukh Mirza, has sent a large embassy to the court of the Yongle Emperor of China.

One of the Persian envoys, Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh, keeps a diary of his travels throughout China, which will soon become widely known throughout Iranic and Turkic Middle East thanks to its inclusion into historical works by Hafiz-i Abru and Abdur Razzaq.

Naqqash writes about China's wealthy economy and huge urban markets, its efficient courier system as compared to that in Persia, the hospitality of his hosts at the courier stations in providing comfortable lodging and food, and the fine luxurious goods and craftsmanship of the Chinese.

The Hussites divide in 1423 into two major parties: the conservatives (Calixtines, or Utraquists) and the radicals (Täborites and Horebites).

The former, centered at Täbor in southern Bohemia, seek to retain the traditional hierarchical and liturgical order; the latter wish the church to return to a primitive simplicity and poverty and conform its life to specific scriptural mandates.

The Ascanian line of Saxe-Wittenberg had become extinct with the death of Elector Albert III in 1422, whereafter Emperor Sigismund bestows the country and electoral dignity upon Margrave Frederick IV of Meissen, who has been a loyal supporter in the Hussite Wars.

The late Albert's Ascanian relative Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg protests in vain.

Frederick, now one of the seven Prince-electors, is a member of the House of Wettin, which since 1089 has ruled over the adjacent Margraviate of Meissen up the Elbe river, established under Emperor Otto I in 965, and since 1242 also over the Landgraviate of Thuringia.

Thus, in 1423, Saxe-Wittenberg, the Margraviate of Meissen and Thuringia are united under one ruler, and the unified territory will gradually receive the name of (Upper) Saxony.

Slaves are plentiful in the Italian city-states as late as the fifteenth century.

Between 1414 and 1423, some ten thousand slaves have been sold in Venice, almost all of whom were "nubile" young women from the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire starts sea campaigns as early as 1423, when it initiates what will be a seven-year war with the Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean, the Ionian, and the Adriatic Seas.

Guido di Pietro is mentioned in June 1423 as Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, the name by which he is known to his contemporaries.

Fra Angelico becomes the artistic spokesman for the Dominicans, as Masaccio is for the Carmelites, and remains a professional artist in touch with contemporary advancements in Florentine painting.

Gentile da Fabriano executes his most famous works, two large altarpieces: “Adoration of the Magi,” commissioned in 1423 by the wealthy Florentine Palla Strozzi for his family chapel in the sacristy of Santa Trinita in Florence; and a large polyptych, “Quaratesi Polyptych,” made in 1425 for the Florentine Quaratesi family (whose panels are now dispersed in museums in London, Florence, Rome, and Washington, D.C.).

“Adoration of the Magi” (generally regarded as the quintessential International Gothic style painting), features sinuous lines and elegant decorative effects, with little concentration on volume or depth.

In the main panel, a throng of attendants dressed in elaborate and richly colored costumes surround the Virgin and Child with the three Magi in a fairy-tale landscape filled with a procession of birds, monkeys, dogs, horses, camels, and leopards.

The first dated work by Italian painter Masolino da Panicale (Tommaso di Cristofano Fino), “Madonna and Child,”painted in 1423, conveys the forty-year-old artist’s leanings toward an established style of grace, gentleness, and elegance.

He soon commences work on the frescoes, mostly illustrating the life of Saint Peter, in the Brancacci Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence; there he comes into direct contact with one of his most artistically radical contemporaries, Masaccio, who also works on the project and with whom, despite Masolino’s conservative temperament, he collaborates.

(As tradition has it, Masolino trains Masaccio.)

The Scottish-French Alliance and the Prelude to the Battle of Cravant (1423)

By 1423, France was in desperate need of soldiers to resist English and Burgundian advances during the Hundred Years’ War. To reinforce the diminished French army, Scotland—France’s traditional ally—provided critical military aid, forming what became known as the ‘Army of Scotland’.

The first large contingent of Scottish troops, around 6,000 men under John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Buchan, had arrived in 1419, quickly proving their worth by contributing to the French victory at the Battle of Baugé (1421)—England’s first major defeat since Agincourt.

However, the mood of optimism collapsed in the early summer of 1423, as French and Scottish forces prepared for another major confrontation.

I. The French-Scottish Army Assembles to Invade Burgundy (1423)

• In 1423, the French Dauphin Charles assembled an army at Bourges, preparing to invade Burgundian-held territory.
• The army contained a large Scottish contingent, commanded by Sir John Stewart of Darnley, who was given overall command of the combined force.
• The army also included:
  • French troops, led by the Comte de Vendôme (second-in-command).
  • Spanish (Aragonese) and Lombard mercenaries, supplementing the force.
• The Dauphinist army was numerically superior, outnumbering the Anglo-Burgundian force by two or three to one.

II. The Siege of Cravant and the Anglo-Burgundian Response

• The French-Scottish army laid siege to Cravant, a Burgundian-held town, aiming to secure a foothold in Burgundian territory.
• The garrison of Cravant, under siege, requested help from the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who raised troops and sought English assistance.
• The English, allied with the Burgundians, quickly responded, and the two armies united at Auxerre on July 29, 1423.

III. The Anglo-Burgundian War Council and Battle Preparations

• On July 29, 1423, the Anglo-Burgundian commanders gathered at Auxerre Cathedral to plan their strategy.
• Their order of battle was carefully structured, emphasizing:
  • A dismounted battle formation, with horses sent to the rear.
  • Archers prepared anti-cavalry stakes to counter French and Scottish charges.
  • Strict discipline orders to prevent disorder during the engagement.
• That night, the army was ordered to pray for victory, and marching orders were set for the following morning at 10:00 AM.

IV. Forces on the Battlefield

1. The French-Scottish Army (Dauphinist Forces)

• Commander: Sir John Stewart of Darnley
• Second-in-command: Comte de Vendôme
• Composition:
  • A majority of the force was Scottish.
  • French troops formed a sizable portion.
  • Aragonese and Lombard mercenaries provided additional reinforcements.
• Estimated Strength: Two to three times larger than the Anglo-Burgundian army.

2. The Anglo-Burgundian Army

• Composition:
  • English troops, led by experienced commanders.
  • Burgundian forces, supporting their English allies.
• Strategy:
  • A tactically disciplined approach, emphasizing defensive positions and coordinated attacks.

V. Conclusion: The Battle is Set

With the Dauphinist forces numerically superior, yet the Anglo-Burgundians better organized, the stage was set for the Battle of Cravant, which would be one of the most decisive confrontations of 1423.

The outcome of the battle would determine whether the French-Scottish alliance could continue its resurgence against English occupation or whether Anglo-Burgundian forces would maintain dominance in northern France.

The Battle of Cravant (July 31, 1423): An Anglo-Burgundian Victory

The Battle of Cravant, fought on July 31, 1423, marked the first major success of the joint English and Burgundian forces during the Hundred Years' War. Commanded by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, with Lord Willoughby as second-in-command, the allied army of 4,000 men decisively defeated the larger Franco-Scottish force, capturing key commanders and forcing the Dauphin’s army to retreat to the Loire.

I. The Anglo-Burgundian Army and Their Advance on Cravant

• The Anglo-Burgundian forces consisted of:
  • 1,500 men-at-arms (500 English, 1,000 Burgundian).
  • 2,000 English archers.
  • Burgundian crossbowmen and pioneers.
  • 40 veuglaires (light artillery) manned by citizens of Auxerre.
• On July 30, the allied forces sighted the enemy about four miles from Cravant.
• Finding the Dauphinist position too strong, they crossed the Yonne River to approach Cravant from another route.

II. Standoff at the River and the Start of the Battle

• The Dauphinist forces, primarily Scottish troops under John Stewart of Darnley and French troops under the Comte de Vendôme, repositioned on the opposite bank.
• For three hours, the two armies stared each other down, neither willing to attempt an opposed river crossing.
• Eventually, Scottish archers began shooting into the allied ranks, triggering an exchange of archery fire and artillery bombardment.

III. The Anglo-Burgundian Attack and the Franco-Scottish Defeat

• Salisbury seized the initiative, ordering his forces to wade across the waist-high, 50-meter-wide river under a barrage of English longbow fire.
• Simultaneously, Lord Willoughby launched an attack over a narrow bridge, splitting the Dauphinist forces in two.
• The French forces began withdrawing, but the Scottish troops refused to retreat and fought to the death.
• The Scots suffered heavy losses, with approximately:
  • 3,000 killed along the bridgehead and riverbanks.
  • 2,000 taken prisoner, including Darnley (who lost an eye) and the Comte de Vendôme.

IV. Aftermath and Strategic Consequences

• The Dauphin’s forces retreated to the Loire, leaving Burgundy secure for the time being.
• On August 2, the allied armies separated:
  • The Burgundians marched to Dijon.
  • The English withdrew to Montaiguillon.
• Despite the success at Cravant, Anglo-Burgundian cooperation remained rare, as both factions typically operated separately in their respective spheres of influence.

V. The Significance of Cravant

• The battle proved the effectiveness of joint English and Burgundian forces in battle.
• It reaffirmed English dominance in France, maintaining their momentum after Agincourt (1415).
• The heavy Scottish casualties weakened the Franco-Scottish alliance, reducing the effectiveness of future Scottish reinforcements for the Dauphin.

The Battle of Cravant (1423) was a decisive victory for the Anglo-Burgundians, reinforcing English control in France and inflicting devastating losses on the Franco-Scottish forces. However, the uneasy alliance between England and Burgundy remained fragile, and rarely would they fight together in such a coordinated manner again.

Philip of Saint-Pol and the Political Struggles in Brabant (1419–1422)

Philip of Saint-Pol, younger brother of Duke John IV of Brabant, played a crucial role in the political turmoil of Brabant and the dynastic conflicts surrounding Jacqueline of Bavaria. His tenure as ruwaard (regent) of Brabant (1420–1421) saw rising opposition to his brother’s rule, but following their reconciliation in 1421, Philip stepped down, allowing John IV to regain full ducal power.

To secure support from the citizenry, John IV expanded city privileges and increased the authority of the States of Brabant in 1422, an act known as the Nieuw Regiment. This strengthened his position in the ongoing conflict against Jacqueline of Bavaria and her new husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, whom he refused to recognize as her legitimate spouse.

I. Philip of Saint-Pol’s Role in Brabant (1419–1421)

• In 1419, Philip commanded the Burgundian forces occupying Paris, enforcing Burgundian control in the aftermath of John the Fearless’ assassination.
• By 1420, he returned to Brabant, where the populace grew dissatisfied with John IV’s misadministration.
• Philip was declared ruwaard (regent) of Brabant, effectively stripping John IV of power.

II. The Reconciliation of 1421 and the Nieuw Regiment (1422)

• In 1421, Philip reconciled with his brother and resigned as regent, restoring John IV’s ducal authority.
• To secure the support of the Brabantine citizenry, John IV granted expanded privileges to the cities and increased the power of the States of Brabant in 1422.
• This measure, known as the Nieuw Regiment, gave the Brabantine Estates more influence over governance, strengthening urban autonomy while stabilizing ducal power.

III. The Brabantine Support for John IV Against Jacqueline of Bavaria (1422–1428)

• With Brabant now behind him, John IV focused on defending his authority against Jacqueline of Bavaria, his estranged wife.
• Jacqueline had remarried Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who pressed her claim to Holland and Zeeland.
• John IV never accepted the annulment of his marriage to Jacqueline, and he was later vindicated by Pope Martin V in 1428 (albeit posthumously), further undermining Jacqueline’s legitimacy.

IV. Consequences and Legacy

• The Nieuw Regiment (1422) helped balance the power dynamics in Brabant, allowing greater urban autonomy while preserving ducal authority.
• The dispute over Jacqueline’s marriage contributed to the larger struggle for control over Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, which would ultimately be decided in favor of Burgundy.
• Philip of Saint-Pol’s brief regency (1420–1421) and reconciliation with John IV played a pivotal role in shaping Brabant’s political structure in the early 15th century.

The power struggle between John IV, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and Humphrey of Gloucester defined the political landscape of Brabant and the Low Countries, as the ducal house of Burgundy gradually absorbed more territories through calculated diplomacy and military action.

Two main altarpieces attributed to Master Francke, a painter in the Gothic international style, survive, dedicated to St. Thomas of Canterbury and Saint Barbara, in an unusually intense style, showing awareness of French and Early Netherlandish court art. (The rather earlier St. Barbara Altarpiece may have been commissioned for Finland, where it surfaced a century ago.)

He probably arrived in Hamburg after the death in 1415 of the previous leading artist there, Master Bertram, and shows little or no influence from him, but he may have been influenced by the more courtly style of Conrad von Soest, about ten years older than Francke, who worked to the south in Westphalia.

Master Francke displays the influence of the Limbourg Brothers’ Burgundian naturalism in his Saint Barbara Altarpiece, executed before 1424 in a style that combines elegant, stylized forms with realistic detail, particularly in the clothing and the physiognomy of the figures.

The "Barbara Altar" has also eight scenes, on both sides of the wings to a carved wood central panel by another artist.

At least two other panels are in museum collections.

Scotland’s King James I, still captive at the English court, marries Joan Beaufort, a cousin of the late Henry V of England, on February 12, 1424, at St Mary Overie Church in Southwark.

They are feasted at Winchester Palace this year by her uncle Cardinal Henry Beaufort.

James had met Joan, a daughter of John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, and Margaret Holland, and a half-niece of King Henry IV of England, during his time as a prisoner in England and has known her from at least 1420.

She is said to have been the inspiration for James's famous long poem, The Kingis Quair, written during his captivity after he saw her from his window in the garden.

However, the marriage is at least partially political as their marriage is part of the agreement for his release from captivity, and from an English perspective an alliance with the Beauforts is meant to establish his country's alliance with the English, rather than the French.

Negotiations results in Joan's dowry of ten thousand marks being subtracted from his substantial ransom.